|
|
 |
|
|
|
register |
bbs |
search |
rss |
faq |
about
|
|
|
meet up |
add to del.icio.us |
digg it
|
|
|
|
This is a collection of info on Diablo. It's data
SATAN?S UTENCILS; stories that shook the world?by Seth Maxwell Malice
The following is information I compiled fior a coffee table book I?m writing on Satan. If you hav
any RESEARCH (i.e. documented shit/information) like below, please feel free to add to this and e-
mail me back. ([email protected]). Please do not send or bother writing me any ?rants?, or
highschool like crap. If that?s what you?re into, go read alt.satan to get your fill.
Essentially you can consider this compilation academic/epidemic, and sub scholarly. All this is
eventually going into a book. Consider this Folklore, consider this free. As all information shoulbe.
Most likely, all the formatting will be ruined when I upload this, oh well, that?s life.
Gotta run, I gotta baby sacrifice at 12:00. Time is money...Hahahahahahahahahaha!!!
-In-sin-cerly Seth Maxwell Malice
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The following list is condenced down from the Bible, with the main search word being
"Satan"; not Devil or Lucifer, or any other name, simply just only references towards Satan.
?Matthew 4:10 Then saith Jesus unto him, Get thee hence, Satan: for it is written, Thou shalt worshi
the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve.
?Matthew 12:26 And if Satan cast out Satan, he is divided against himself; how shall then his kingdo
stand?
?Matthew 12:27 And if I by Beelzebub cast out devils, by whom do your children cast them out?
therefore they shall be your judges.
?Matthew 12:28 But if I cast out devils by the Spirit of God, then the kingdom of God is come unto
you. ?Job 1:6 Now there was a day when the sons of God came to present themselves before the
LORD, and Satan came also among them.
?Job 1:7 And the LORD said unto Satan, Whence comest thou? Then Satan answered the LORD, and
said, From going to and fro in the earth, and from walking up and down in it.
?Job 1:8 And the LORD said unto Satan, Hast thou considered my servant Job, that there is none like im in the earth, a perfect and an upright man, one that feareth God, and escheweth evil?
?Job 1:9 Then Satan answered the LORD, and said, Doth Job fear God for nought?
?Job 1:12 And the LORD said unto Satan, Behold, all that he hath is in thy power; only upon himself ut not forth thine hand. So Satan went forth from the presence of the LORD.
?Zechariah 3:2 And the LORD said unto Satan, The LORD rebuke thee, O Satan; even the LORD that
hath chosen Jerusalem rebuke thee: is not this a brand plucked out of the fire?
?John 13:27 And after the sop Satan entered into him. Then said Jesus unto him, That thou doest, do uickly.
?Revelation 2:13 I know thy works and where thou dwellest, even where Satan's seat is: and thou
holdest fast my name, and hast not denied my faith, even in those days wherein Antipas was my
faithful martyr, who was slain among you, where Satan dwelleth.
?Revelation 2:24 But unto you I say, and unto the rest in Thyatira, as many as have not this doctrin
and which have not known the depths of Satan, as they speak; I will put upon you none other burden. ?Revelation 2:24 But unto you I say, and unto the rest in Thyatira, as many as have not this doctrin
and which have not known the depths of Satan, as they speak; I will put upon you none other burden. ?Revelation 2:9 I know thy works, and tribulation, and poverty, (but thou art rich) and I know the
blasphemy of them which say they are Jews, and are not, but are the synagogue of Satan.
?Revelation 12:9 And the great dragon was cast out, that old serpent, called the Devil, and Satan,
which deceiveth the whole world: he was cast out into the earth, and his angels were cast out with h.
?Revelation 20:2 And he laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil, and Satan, an
bound him a thousand years,
?Revelation 20:3 And cast him into the bottomless pit, and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, tha
he should deceive the nations no more, till the thousand years should be fulfilled: and after that hmust
be loosed a little season.
?Revelation 20:7 And when the thousand years are expired, Satan shall be loosed out of his prison
?Psalms 109:6 Set thou a wicked man over him: and let Satan stand at his right hand.
?I Timothy 5:15 For some are already turned aside after Satan.
?Revelation 3:9 Behold, I will make them of the synagogue of Satan, which say they are Jews, and arenot, but do lie; behold, I will make them to come and worship before thy feet, and to know that I ha
loved thee.
?Mark 1:13 And he was there in the wilderness forty days, tempted of Satan; and was with the wild
beasts; and the angels ministered unto him.
?Mark 3:23 And he called them unto him, and said unto them in parables, How can Satan cast out
Satan? ?Mark 3:26 And if Satan rise up against himself, and be divided, he cannot stand, but hath a
end.
?Mark 4:15 And these are they by the way side, where the word is sown; but when they have heard,
Satan cometh immediately, and taketh away the word that was sown in their hearts.
?Mark 8:33 But when he had turned about and looked on his disciples, he rebuked Peter, saying, Get
thee behind me, Satan: for thou savourest not the things that be of God, but the things that be of m.
?Luke 4:8 And Jesus answered and said unto him, Get thee behind me, Satan: for it is written, Thou
shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve.
?Luke 10:18 And he said unto them, I beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven.
?Luke 11:18 If Satan also be divided against himself, how shall his kingdom stand? because ye say
that I cast out devils through Beelzebub.
?Luke 13:16 And ought not this woman, being a daughter of Abraham, whom Satan hath bound, lo,
these eighteen years, be loosed from this bond on the sabbath day?
?Luke 22:3 Then entered Satan into Judas surnamed Iscariot, being of the number of the twelve.
?I Thessalonians 2:18 Wherefore we would have come unto you, even I Paul, once and again; but
Satan hindered us.
?II Thessalonians 2:9 Even him, whose coming is after the working of Satan with all power and signs nd lying wonders,
?II Thessalonians 2:10 And with all deceivableness of unrighteousness in them that perish; because
they received not the love of the truth, that they might be saved.
?Romans 16:20 And the God of peace shall bruise Satan under your feet shortly. The grace of our
Lord Jesus Christ be with you. Amen.
?Acts 5:3 But Peter said, Ananias, why hath Satan filled thine heart to lie to the Holy Ghost, and t
keep back part of the price of the land?
?Acts 26:18 To open their eyes, and to turn them from darkness to light, and from the power of Satanunto God, that they may receive forgiveness of sins, and inheritance among them which are sanctifiedby faith that is in me.
?I Corinthians 5:5 To deliver such an one unto Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the spir
may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus.
?II Corinthians 2:11 Lest Satan should get an advantage of us: for we are not ignorant of his device
?II Corinthians 11:14 And no marvel; for Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light.
?II Corinthians 12:7 And lest I should be exalted above measure through the abundance of the
revelations, there was given to me a thorn in the flesh, the messenger of Satan to buffet me, lest Ishould be exalted above measure.
The following list is compiled out of the Comptin's New Media Interactive Encyclopedia.
Carducci, Giosue (1835-1907), Italian poet and literary historian, born in Valdicastello; liberated talian poetry from sentimental romanticism ('Hymn to Satan', 'Barbaric Odes'); received 1906 Nobel pize
Beelzebub (or Baalzebub), in Bible's Old Testament, heathen god (II Kings 1:1-18); in New
Testament, prince of devils; in Milton's 'Paradise Lost', Satan's chief lieutenant.
JEHOVAH'S WITNESSES. The religious organization known as Jehovah's Witnesses since 1931
was originally called the Russellites after its founder, Charles Taze Russell (see Russell, Charles ze).
It has also been known as the International Bible Students Association. The group's central belief ithat
the Bible, when it is literally interpreted, can be used to predict God's plan of salvation with presion.
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the end of the world is near and that there will be a great "battlef
Armageddon" between the forces of God and Satan; in this conflict God will be victorious and will se
up an earthly paradise for all believers.
HORROR STORY.
Stories about the devil and lesser demons date at least as far back as the Middle Ages, when the
Christian church tried to instill fear in the hearts of believers about the consequences of sin. In th-
century literature the devil plays a central role in William Blatty's novel 'The Exorcist' (1971) anin
Ira Levin's novel of Satanism, 'Rosemary's Baby' (1967). Both were made into motion pictures. David eltzer's 'The Omen' (1976) about a child-demon was originally a screenplay.
FAUST LEGEND. In the early 16th century there sprang up in Germany tales of a magician, Dr.
Johannes Faust, or Faustus, who was rumored to be in league with the devil. With his aid, Faust coul
supposedly perform remarkable feats. There seems little doubt that a soothsayer-magician of this nam
really existed. He is said to have died about 1540, but the details of his life have been lost. He w
reputed to be a charlatan who traveled from place to place in Germany, passing himself off as a
physician, alchemist, astrologer, and magician.
Faust owes his first literary fame to the anonymous author of 'Das Faustbuch' (The Faust Book)
published in Frankfurt am Main in 1587. This was a collection of tales concerning a number of ancien
and medieval magicians, wizards, and sorcerers who had gone by the name of Faust. The book,
attributed to the original Faust, was soon translated and published in other countries. 'Das Faustbu'
relates how Faust sought to acquire supernatural knowledge and power by a bargain with Satan. In thi
pact, signed with his own blood, Faust agreed that Mephistopheles, a devil, was to become his servan
for 24 years. In return, Faust would surrender himself to Satan. Mephistopheles entertained his mast
with luxurious living, long intellectual conversations, and with glimpses of the spirit world. Afterhe
agreed 24 years, during an earthquake, Faust was carried off to Hell.
The Faust legend soon gained wide popularity and was used as a theme by many writers. An English ranslation inspired the dramatist Christopher Marlowe to write the play 'The Tragicall History of D Faustus', probably first performed in 1588. Strolling actors performed the play, and it became the
subject of puppet plays and Punch-and-Judy shows.
An incidental by-product of the Faust legend was the publication of manuals of magic, supposedly y Faust himself. Included in these manuals were instructions for avoiding making pacts with the devl
and for breaking such a pact already made.
The 18th-century German writer Gotthold Lessing restructured the legend in his unfinished Faust
play of 1759. Faust's pursuit of knowledge was made to appear one of the noblest instincts of mankin
and a precursor of the hero's reconciliation with God.
The most outstanding treatment of the legend was formulated by Johann von Goethe, who raised the tory to the level of a powerful drama and introduced the motif of a heroine, Margarete. Her
abandonment by Faust develops some of the central themes of Goethe's 'Faust' (Part I, 1808; Part II,1832), a play in which betrayal is balanced by redemption. The French composer Hector Berlioz
turned Goethe's drama into a dramatic choral work, 'La damnation de Faust', in 1845. (See also
Goethe.)
Other 19th- and 20th-century authors have used the legend as the basis for stories, but the best cent
work is probably the 1947 'Doktor Faustus' of the German writer Thomas Mann. This version uses
passages from the original 'Faustbuch'.
Devil, in Christian and Jewish theology, a fallen angel or evil spirit, especially Lucifer or Satan,hich
represents absolute evil
The end of the world. Mythmakers likewise tried to explain the end of life and the world. The flood egends were one way of telling how the Earth was once destroyed at least all life forms except for few survivors. In some American Indian myths the end of the world recurred in a cycle, followed by anew creation. According to ancient Aztec tradition, there had already been four destructions of the orld, and a fifth was expected. Each world was ruled by a sun whose disappearance marked each
ending.
Some mythologies blamed such catastrophic ends of the world on human wickedness. In the Biblical tory of Noah the flood opened the way for a regeneration of the world and a new humanity. Because
wickedness persisted, however, another cataclysm became inevitable. Nearly all modern religions havetaken up this kind of mythology, looking forward to an end of the world, a new creation, and a
judgment on humanity for its deeds.
Myths of the end of the universe are integrated with beliefs about death and the fate of humanityafterward. In many mythologies the dead may be rewarded or punished (see Hell and Hades). It was
inconceivable to most ancient peoples that humans would not survive in some form after death.
Egyptian kings made elaborate preparations for the afterlife.
In both Judaism and Christianity, quite complex visions have been devised about the end of the
world, the final judgment, and a new creation. The basis for these ideas is in passages from the Booof
Daniel in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), the Book of Revelation in the New Testament, and
portions of the Gospels. In contrast to mythologies of India, the end of the world is supposed to
happen only once. There are no cycles of destruction and regeneration.
For Judaism the coming of the Messiah will announce the end of the present world and the
restoration of paradise. For Christianity the end will precede the second coming of Jesus and the la
judgment. After these events the whole universe will be renewed and made perfect. All evil and
misfortune will be abolished. Many Christian groups that have made the doctrine central to their fai
have interposed a 1,000-year period, called the millennium, between the second coming and the end ofthe world. During this time only the saints will dwell on Earth. Then Satan will be unleashed to stiup
a period of terrible persecution. After that the end will come, followed by judgment and a new creatn.
Some groups put the second coming after the millennium. Most traditional Christian denominations,
however, reject the notion of a millennium altogether.
ISLAM.
Basic Beliefs
Islam teaches that there is one God, the creator and sustainer of the universe. This God, Allah,
compassionate and just. Because He is compassionate, He calls all people to believe in Him and
worship Him. Because He is also just, on the Last Day He will judge every person according to his
deeds. On the Last Day, all the dead will be resurrected and either rewarded with heaven or punishedwith hell.
Mankind is regarded as the crown of creation, entrusted by God with management of the whole
created order. Yet humanity is also seen as weak and prone to disbelief in God and to disobedience t
His will. Humanity's weakness is pride: It does not realize its limitations and views itself as selfsufficient.
To compensate for this frailty, God has sent prophets to communicate His will. These prophets, al
mortal men, were elected messengers to whom God spoke through an angel or by inspiration.
Unfortunately for mankind, most of the prophets have been ignored. People, deluded by Satan, or the evil, continued to disbelieve in Allah. In spite of this, God is always ready to pardon the individa
and restore him to the sinless state in which he started life.
The life of each Muslim is always within the community of the faithful: All are declared to be
"brothers to each other," with the mission to "enjoin good and forbid evil." Within the community,
Muslims are expected to establish social and economic justice. They are also expected to carry theirmessage out to the rest of the world.
In the early Islamic community, this meant the use of force in the form of jihad, or holy war. T
intent was not to force conversion on anyone; this was forbidden by the Koran. The object of jihad
was to gain political control over societies and run them in accordance with the principles of Islam During the decades following the death of Muhammad certain essential principles were singled out rom his teachings to serve as anchoring points for the Islamic community. These have come to be
called the "five pillars of Islam." Some early, and more fanatical, believers added jihad as a sixthillar,
but it was never accepted by the whole community.
UNITED STATES HISTORY.
Iran
President Carter's apparent strength in foreign affairs was shaken in late 1979. Iranian revolutiaries
in Tehran had put an end to the regime of the shah in January. The government was turned over to thefundamentalist and anti-American Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who referred to the United States as
the "great Satan."
EDUCATION
Colonial America
While the schools that the colonists established in the 17th century in the New England, Southern
and Middle colonies differed from one another, each reflected a concept of schooling that had been lt
behind in Europe. Most poor children learned through apprenticeship and had no formal schooling at
all. Those who did go to elementary school were taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion.
Learning consisted of memorizing, which was stimulated by whipping. The secondary school,
attended by the wealthier children, was, as in most of Europe, the Latin grammar school. The teacher
were no better prepared, and perhaps less so, than the teachers in Europe.
Harvard College, which traces its history to 1636, had as its primary purpose the training of Lat
school graduates for the ministry. Like most of the colleges in Europe, its curriculum was humanist. Most of the books used in the elementary and secondary schools were also used in Europe: Bibles, palters, Latin and Greek texts, Comenius' 'Orbis Pictus', and the hornbook, which was widely used i
England at the end of the 16th century. Not really a book at all, the hornbook was a paddle-shaped
board. A piece of parchment (and, later, paper) with the lesson written on it was attached to the bod
and covered with a transparent sheet of horn to keep it clean.
The first "basic textbook" 'The New England Primer' was America's own contribution to education. sed from 1690 until the beginning of the 19th century, its purpose was to teach both religion and
reading. The child learning the letter a, for example, also learned that "In Adam's fall, We sinned l."
As in Europe, then, the schools in the colonies were strongly influenced by religion. This was
particularly true of the schools in the New England area, which had been settled by Puritans and oth
English religious dissenters. Like the Protestants of the Reformation, who established vernacular
elementary schools in Germany in the 16th century, the Puritans sought to make education universal. hey took the first steps toward government-supported universal education in the colonies. In 1642
Puritan Massachusetts passed a law requiring that every child be taught to read. And in 1647 it pass
the "Old Deluder Satan Act," so named because its purpose was to defeat Satan's attempts to keep men
through an inability to read, from the knowledge of the Scriptures. The law required every town of 5
or more families to establish an elementary school and every town of 100 or more families to maintai
a grammar school as well.
Puritan or not, virtually all of the colonial schools had clear-cut moral purposes. Skills and
knowledge were considered important to the degree that they served religious ends and, of course,
"trained" the mind.
BAAL. The Semitic word baal, meaning owner or master, was also used in ancient religions for lord
or god, and it is still defined as a Canaanite or Phoenician deity. Among the greatest of the Semiti
peoples' deities were Baal and Astarte both symbols of fertility. Baal, the god of the sun, was supped
to make crops grow and flocks increase. Astarte, the goddess of the moon, was identified with
passionate love.
The religion of Baal was spread by Phoenician sailors throughout the Mediterranean world (see
Phoenicians). Baal cults grew up in Asia Minor, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Carthage, and Spain. Baal and
Astarte, under different names, were worshiped in Babylonia and Assyria. The priests taught that Baa
was responsible for droughts, plagues, and other calamities, and they made sacrifices to appease theangry god. Bullocks, goats, sheep, and sometimes humans were burned alive. In the Bible, Baal is als
called Beelzebub (Baalzebub), one of Satan's fallen angels.
Devil worship (or satanism), devotion to Satan or the Devil, the personality regarded by the Judeo-
Christian tradition as the absolute evil and completely opposite to God; centers around the Black Ma;
is not to be confused with modern witchcraft or neopaganism since these groups worship pre-Christiangods.
Lucifer, name of Venus as morning star; applied by Isaiah to king of Babylon ("How art thou fallen
from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning!"), and, through misunderstanding of this passage by late
writers, to Satan.
UNIFICATION CHURCH. Members of the Unification church are often called "Moonies" because
the organization was founded by the Korean evangelist Sun Myung Moon. The name, which is
considered derisive and insulting by the group, has been used because many people consider the
church to be a cult. The official name of the organization is the Holy Spirit Association for the
Unification of World Christianity.
The movement was founded in South Korea in 1954, but moved its headquarters to Tarrytown, N.Y.,
in 1971. Moon had been a member of the Presbyterian church in North Korea. After World War II he
began teaching doctrines contrary to Presbyterian beliefs and was excommunicated that is, he was
deprived of his church membership in 1948. He claimed that in about 1936 he had a vision of Jesus inwhich the Korean evangelist was given the mission of saving the world from Satanism which he
identified with Communism. Moon was imprisoned in North Korea, but in 1950 he escaped and fled to
South Korea. There his book 'The Divine Principle' was published in 1952. This book became the
sacred scripture of the Unification church.
The Unification movement states that its goal is to establish the rule of God on Earth. Moon decled
that work toward this goal was initiated by Jesus, but that the Crucifixion prevented its completionsee
Jesus Christ). Completion of the mission, according to Moon, has been entrusted to him and his wife,Hak Ja Han, who are together called the lord and lady of the Second Advent.
How Folktales Traveled
It is interesting to trace the ways in which folktales traveled from the countries of their origito the
countries of their adoption. They were carried by migrating peoples and by traders. They went along n the Crusades and accompanied armies in invasions and wars.
During the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, all the world was on the move and all the world as listening to stories. Chaucer traveled in France, Italy, and Spain. He heard stories in these conries
and put some of them into his 'Canterbury Tales'. Milton, who became popular later, used one of the niversal themes of folklore that it takes nine days to go from heaven to the underworld. In 'Paradie
Lost' he says that Satan's fall consumed "nine times the span that measures day and night."
By the early years of the 19th century, stories from the East had flowed into the continent of Eupe.
From France they had crossed the channel to the British Isles. Tales from the British Isles had traved
to the European mainland, and tales from the Old World had been carried over the ocean to North and outh America. Sometimes these transplanted stories remained unchanged. Sometimes they were
thoroughly transformed in their new homes.
Jackson, Crawford, and Webster. There was Andrew Jackson, "Old Hickory" his soldiers called him.
He won the battle of New Orleans against the British in 1815 and later was elected president of the nited States. The same people who voted for him used to tell folktales about him. One of the best
known stories told how he rode to a political convention on the back of an enormous, kicking and
spitting wildcat. (See also Jackson, Andrew.)
The state of New Hampshire had two such real heroes who became folk heroes too. One of these
was the pioneer Ethan Crawford, of Crawford Notch in the White Mountains. Once a load of hay fell
on him with all its crushing weight. Ethan was so strong that he caught it on his broad shoulders an
lifted it back to the body of the wagon. Ethan could talk to the mountain animals. It was even said
him that he once preached a sermon to the wolves who had been attacking his sheep and he made them
feel very sorry for what they had done.
The other New Hampshire hero was the great speechmaker Daniel Webster. When he was speaking
his eyes were said to flash fire and his voice was like the roll of distant thunder. Many are the tas
about Dan'l and his big and hot-tempered ram Beelzebub, about how smart Dan'l was, about the time
that he even outsmarted his satanic majesty the Devil himself. (
A Word About Milton's Writings
For the student who is reading Milton's work for the first time, his poetry is admittedly difficu.
There are many references to obscure Biblical and mythological people. Milton's language is often
high-flown, deliberately literary, and far from common or natural.
Once these difficulties are overcome, however, the student can recognize why Milton is great. Fir,
he sees that Milton's subjects are lofty and magnificent. The conflict between Satan and God in
'Paradise Lost', however far from the reader's own experience, is one that he knows is basic to all eligious thought. The theme of 'Samson Agonistes' is closer to home, yet the agony and the final
triumph of the blinded Samson are tragic and sublime.
Second, Milton tells an engrossing story. Action is swift and events are exciting. The charactersre
human and believable. Indeed, many critics have felt that Milton made Satan too human.
Finally, his endings are lifelike. Despite tragedy and death, life itself goes on. In his epic enngs, a
balance is restored and calm prevails. Life, not death, is triumphant.
ANGEL AND DEMON. The Western religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have all accepted
the belief that there is, between God and mankind, a class of intermediary beings called angels. Theword angel comes from the Greek word angelos, meaning "messenger." Angels are considered to be
bodiless minds or spirits who perform various services for God or for people on God's behalf.
Angels are good spirits. They have their counterpart in demons, or evil spirits. The word demon i
derived from the Greek word daimon, meaning basically any supernatural being or spirit. Belief in
spirits of all kinds was quite prevalent in the ancient world. But when Christianity appeared, nearl
2,000 years ago, it condemned belief in such spirits and assigned them the name demon. Ever since,
demons have been thought of as evil spirits.
The origins of belief in angels and demons can be traced to the ancient Persian religion of
Zoroastrianism. Followers of the prophet Zoroaster believed that there were two supreme beings, one ood and the other evil. The good one, Ahura Mazda, was served by angels; the evil one, Ahriman,
had demon helpers. Zoroastrians referred to demons as daevas, hence the word devil. Belief in good
and evil spirits worked its way into Judaism and later into the religions of Christianity and Islam. Angels are frequently mentioned in the Bible, mostly in the role of messengers from God to mankin.
Their appearances on Earth seem to have been in human form. In the Old Testament books of Job,
Ezekiel, and Daniel, as well as in the Apocryphal book of Tobit, angels play significant roles. In t
Book of Job the leading demon, Satan, is also introduced. But it is not until the New Testament thatSatan is portrayed, under the name Lucifer, as the first of the fallen angels the angels that rebell
against God.
In the New Testament, angels are present at all the important events in the life of Jesus, from h birth
to the Resurrection. In the very dramatic Book of Revelation, angels are portrayed as the agents of d
in bringing judgment upon the world. Other New Testament writers also speak of angels. St. Paul
especially takes note of them by assigning them ranks. He lists seven groups: angels, archangels,
principalities, powers, virtues, dominions, and thrones. The Old Testament had spoken of only two
orders: cherubim and seraphim.
Early Christianity accepted all nine ranks and in the course of time developed extensive doctrine
about both angels and demons. The latter were conceived of as Satan's legions, sent out to lure
mankind away from belief in God. Angels and demons play similar roles in Islam and are often
mentioned in its holy book, the Koran.
Belief in supernatural spirits has not been limited to the major Western religions. In the prelitate
societies of Africa, Oceania, Asia, and the Americas, spirits were thought to inhabit the whole natul
world (see Animism). These spirits could act either for good or for evil, and so there was no divisi
between them as there has been between angels and demons. The power of these spirits is called mana,which can be either helpful or hurtful to people.
Fascination with angels and demons has led to their frequent depiction in works of art and literare.
The paintings, stained glass, mosaics, and sculptures of the Middle Ages and Renaissance are
especially replete with figures of both.
In John Milton's long poem 'Paradise Lost' (1667), Satan himself is a main character; and the angs
Raphael, Gabriel, and Michael play prominent roles. In Dante's 'Divine Comedy' (1321?) angels
appear as both messengers and guardians, and Satan is vividly portrayed frozen in a block of ice.
---------------------------------------------------------
Excerpted from Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia
Copyright c 1993, 1994 Compton's NewMedia, Inc.
Satan
From Microsoft Encarta;
Black Mass, a blasphemous, obscene parody of the Roman Catholic liturgy, involving the worship of
Satan (see Devil). Among its rituals are the suspension of a cross upside down, the recitation of th
Lord's Prayer backward, a blessing with filthy water, the use of a naked woman's abdomen as an altar
the sacrifice of an infant or an animal, and bizarre orgies.
Traditional stories about and accounts of the Black Mass probably date from medieval practices that sed the Mass proper as a magical rite to provoke love in another person, to bring about the death o an individual, or to strengthen the power of a magician. Given such practices, it was easy to connec
the Black Mass with the witches' sabbath and with Satanic worship. Because so many of the tales
about Black Masses were related by accused and condemned individuals, some modern scholars think
that this Mass was mainly a literary creation and that its actual practice as a form of devil worshidates
only from the 19th century.
Contributed by: John A. Saliba
"Black Mass," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993
Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Satanism, the worship of Satan (Devil), traditionally associated with occultism, witchcraft, and theBlack Mass. Although some scholars believe that before the 19th century the Black Mass was largely aliterary invention, it has usually been considered the central ritual of Satanism. The celebrant wea
vestments resembling those worn by Christian priests celebrating mass, except that the chasuble may ear the figure of a goat, an animal often associated with Satan. Other features of the Black Mass my
include the suspension of a cross upside down, parodies and inversions of Christian prayers and
creeds, animal sacrifices, and ritualistic orgies.
Satanism seems in great part a survival of the worship of demons, for it does not regard Satan as
beneficent or ill-treated but as a fiend more powerful than the forces of good, which have been unab
to keep the promises they have made to the world. The history of Satanism is obscure. It is possiblethat the French marshal Gilles de Rais (1404-40), who was tried for heresy, Satanism, and child
murder, was an early adherent. Satanism seems to have been revived during the reign of Louis XIV of rance and has maintained itself since that time, usually shrouded in secrecy but occasionally comin o
public attention.
"Satanism," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993
Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Albigenses, followers of the single most important heresy within the Christian church during the
Middle Ages. They were named after the town of Albi, in southern France, a major center of the
movement.
The Albigenses were believers in the Manichaean dualistic system that flourished in the Mediterranea
area for centuries. The dualists believed in the separate and independent existence of a god of goodnd
a god of evil. Within western Europe, the adherents of dualism, called Cathari (from the Greek
katharos, meaning "purified"), first appeared in northern France and the Low Countries toward the la
11th or early 12th century. Persecuted and expelled from the north, the Catharist preachers traveledsouth and found far greater success in the semi-independent province of Languedoc and the
surrounding areas. There they became known as Albigenses.
The Albigenses believed that the whole of existence was a struggle between two gods: the god of ligh
goodness, and spirit, usually associated with Jesus Christ and the God of the New Testament; and thegod of evil, darkness, and matter, identified both with Satan and the God of the Old Testament.
Whether the two deities wielded equal power or whether the forces of evil were subordinate to the
forces of good was a question subject to considerable debate; but, by definition, anything material,including wealth, food, and the human body itself, was evil and abhorrent. The soul had been
imprisoned by Satan in the human body, and the only hope of human salvation was to live a good and
spiritual life. By living a good life, a person could win freedom after death from material existenc
Failure to achieve righteousness during one's lifetime would result in the soul's being born again a
another human being or even as an animal. The Albigenses believed that Christ was God, but that
during his time on earth he was a kind of angel with a phantom body taking the appearance of a man. hey held that the traditional Christian church, with its corrupt clergy and its immense material welh,
was the agent of Satan and was to be avoided.
Adherents of the Albigensian doctrine were divided into the simple believers and the "perfects." Theperfects vowed themselves to lives of extreme asceticism. Renouncing all possessions, they survived ntirely from donations given by the other members. They were forbidden to take oaths, to have sexua relations, or to eat meat, eggs, or cheese. Only the perfects could communicate with God through
prayer. The simple believers might hope to become perfects through a long initiation period followedby the rite called consolamentum, or baptism of the Holy Spirit through the laying on of hands. Somewould receive this rite only when they were near death. They would then attempt to ensure their
salvation by abstaining from all food and drink, in effect committing a form of suicide.
The Christian church initially attempted to reconvert the Albigenses through peaceful means. When
every attempt failed, Pope Innocent III launched the armed Albigensian Crusade (circa 1209-29) that rutally repressed the Albigenses and desolated much of southern France. Small groups of Albigenses srvived in isolated areas and were pursued by the Inquisition as late as the 14th century.
See also Bogomils; Cathari; Dualism; Manichaeism; Paulicians.
Contributed by: Timothy N. Tackett
"Albigenses," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993
Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Gog and Magog, in the Bible, great hostile powers controlled by Satan that will appear just before t
end of the world (see Revelation 20:8). In Ezekiel 38:2, Magog is also identified as a land_the homef
Gog. In later rabbinic literature, Gog and Magog became the conventional symbols for any force
opposed to authentic religion or its adherents.
"Gog and Magog," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright ©
1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Jehovah's Witnesses, Christian sect, founded in 1872 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, by the American
clergyman Charles Taze Russell, with congregations in more than 90 countries. Members of the sect
originally were known by the popular name of Russellites. The legal governing body of Jehovah's
Witnesses is the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, incorporated in 1884.
European members belong to the affiliated International Bible Students Association, incorporated in ondon in 1914. International headquarters is in Brooklyn, New York.
Members of the sect believe in the second coming of Christ; they regard themselves as practitioners
primitive Christianity and consider each Witness a minister. The sect stresses Bible study and absole
obedience to biblical precepts. Its teachings are spread primarily by members who preach from door t
door and distribute literature to passersby on street corners. Bible study classes frequently are
conducted in private homes. The meeting places of Jehovah's Witnesses are called Kingdom Halls.
Witnesses acknowledge allegiance solely to the kingdom of Jesus Christ. They refuse consequently to alute any flag, vote, perform military service, or otherwise signify allegiance to any government. hs
policy has brought them into conflict with governmental authorities in many countries, including theUnited States.
Jehovah's Witnesses teach that Christ began his invisible reign as king in 1914. They believe that sn
the forces of good, led by Christ, will defeat the forces of evil, led by Satan, at the battle of
Armageddon. Thereafter Christ will rule the earth for a thousand years. During this millennium the dd
will rise again, and all people will have a second opportunity to achieve salvation. At the end of t
millennium Satan will return to earth, and he and those who support him will finally be destroyed. Aperfect humankind will then enjoy eternal life on earth.
The sect maintains an extensive publishing program, issuing books and pamphlets in many languages.
Its best-known periodical, The Watchtower, is printed in more than 100 languages. In the late 1980s he world membership of active adherents numbered about 3.8 million; in the U.S., where Jehovah's
Witnesses are most numerous, active members totaled more than 800,000.
Bibliographic entry: B107.
"Jehovah's Witnesses," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright
© 1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Job, book of the Old Testament. It is attributed to Job, the principal character of the book. Biblic
scholars have dated the book variously from Mosaic to postexilic times. The time presently favored b
most scholars, however, is the later postexilic period, or from 500 to 250 bc. The author, who is
unknown, is thought to have used an Israelite or Edomite folktale or epic dating perhaps from the
beginning of the Israelite monarchy as a framework for his poetic dialogue. Later, another writer (o
editor) added the speeches of a youthful fourth friend (chap. 32-37). The book is part of the Wisdomliterature of the Old Testament, which includes Ecclesiastes and Proverbs.
The Book of Job consists of five distinct sections: a prose prologue (chap. 1-2); a series of dramat
discourses between Job and three of his friends, Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar (chap. 3-31); a discour
between Job and Elihu, a fourth friend (chap. 32-37); God's speeches from the whirlwind (38:1-42:6);and a prose epilogue (42:7-17).
The Prologue
Job is a "man . . . blameless and upright . . . one who feared God, and turned away from evil" (1:1)He
is pious, rich, and the head of a large, contented family. Then on a day "when the sons of God came
present themselves before the Lord" (1:6), God asks Satan what he thinks of Job's piety and
righteousness. Satan proposes that Job would curse God if he were to lose all his wealth; so God andSatan agree to test Job. Satan proceeds to take away Job's possessions, even his sons, and finally t
afflict Job with extremely painful boils. Job refuses, however, to curse God. Three of his friends, aving heard of his misfortunes, now arrive to comfort him, but they are dumbfounded at their first sght of Job.
Job and His Friends
The second section, after Job's first complaint (chap. 3), consists of three cycles of speeches. Durg
each cycle each one of his three friends speaks once and Job, directly replying to each in turn, ansrs
three times. The gist of the speeches of the three friends is that Job's misfortunes and suffering mt
result from some wickedness on the part of Job and therefore he is justly served. Job, steadfastly
proclaiming his innocence, soon becomes irritated, then angry, with his friends for their apparentlyunwarranted, superficial judgments; still he continues to seek an explanation for his sufferings: "Othat
I had one to hear me! Here is my signature! Let the Almighty answer me" (31:35).
The third section consists of the speeches of Elihu. His wrath is kindled against Job "because he
justified himself rather than God" (32:2) and against "his three friends because they had found no
answer, although they had declared Job to be in the wrong" (32:3). Elihu contends that Job has added"rebellion to his sin" (34:37) by questioning God's judgment. His support for this contention is thebelief that "the Almighty_we cannot find him; he is great in power and justice" (37:23).
God Speaks
In the fourth section, God speaks from out of a whirlwind. He seems to ignore completely Job's desir
for an explanation or justification of his suffering; instead, he humbles Job by challenging him to xplain how the universe was created and how it is ordered. Job's "error," apparently, is his
presumption that God's ways and his omnipotence are humanly comprehensible. In seemingly
irrelevant questions (40:8), God both rebukes Job and makes his most direct reply to Job's earlier
question: "What is the Almighty, that we should serve him? And what profit do we get if we pray to
him?" (21:15). Recognizing at last that he has spoken out of ignorance and that he may come no close
to God than his vision of him, Job now repents (42:1-6).
The Epilogue
In the last section, God rebukes Job's three friends (Elihu does not appear) because they "have not poken of me what is right, as my servant Job has" (42:7). He gives to Job twice the wealth and
possessions he formerly owned, seven sons and three beautiful daughters, and a contented old age.
The epilogue, like the prologue, is in prose, and it most clearly reflects the probable folktale orins of
the poetic discourses.
"Job," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993 Funk &
Wagnall's Corporation
Mark, Gospel According to, second book of the New Testament.
Authorship
The earliest evidence pertinent to the authorship of Mark comes from the 3d-century church historianEusebius of Caesarea, who quotes an earlier writer named Papias (60?-125?). Papias himself quotes a tatement concerning Mark's Gospel by a still earlier figure whom he calls the "presbyter" (elder): Ad
the presbyter used to say this: `Mark, being Peter's interpreter, wrote down accurately, but not in rder, that which he remembered of what was said and done by the Lord.'!" It is virtually certain tht
in Papias's opinion, this Mark was the John Mark, cousin of Barnabas, mentioned in Acts (see, for
instance, Acts 15:37-39), in several letters of Paul (see Colossians 4:10; 2 Timothy 4:11; Philemon ),
and in 1 Peter 5:13. Critical research has been able neither to prove nor to disprove this opinion, t
there are reasons to doubt it.
Early Christians tended to link the gospels with one of the 12 apostles. If the text was firmly attruted
by early tradition to a man named Mark, Papias's presbyter probably did the best he could with this radition by identifying this Mark with John Mark in order to link him to the apostle Peter. Hence, mny scholars believe that the Gospel was written by an otherwise unknown early Christian named
Mark who drew on a large number of traditions in order to compose a tightly organized and
compelling narrative.
Date and Place of Composition
In chapter 13, Mark refers to the destruction of Jerusalem either as an event that may shortly happeor
as one that has recently happened. Consequently, although scholars do not know whether to date the
Gospel shortly before or shortly after ad 70, it is virtually certain that it is not far removed frothat
date.
A tradition as early as the 2d-century Greek theologian Clement of Alexandria gives Rome as the plac
of composition, but that view is probably dependent on the assumption that the author wrote down
things said by Peter. Clues in the Gospel itself have suggested to numerous scholars that it may hav
been written in Galilee or Syria.
Contents
The Gospel tells the story of the adult Jesus from the time of his baptism by John the Baptist to hi
crucifixion and the angel's report of his resurrection. The opening scenes, set in Judea, portray th
activity of John the Baptist, Jesus' baptism, and his temptation by Satan in the wilderness. The sce
then shifts (1:14) to Galilee, and for the bulk of the Gospel the reader is taken to various localesn the
north, notably in the vicinity of the Lake of Galilee, where Jesus teaches about the kingdom of God d
heals the sick. Jesus then travels south (10:1) to the region of Judea, and from Mark 11:11 through e
end of the Gospel the scenes are set in and around Jerusalem, where Jesus is arrested, crucified, an
buried. When some women from among his followers go to the tomb to care for the body, they
discover that the tomb is empty. An angel commands them to tell the disciples, but they speak to no e
because they are afraid.
Thus, the Gospel begins and ends in Judea, but a large segment of the intervening activity is locatein
Galilee. The importance of Galilee is further indicated by a twice-spoken prophecy that after his
resurrection Jesus will go to Galilee, and that Galilee will be the locale in which the disciples wi see
him (14:28, 16:7).
Literary Structure
It is reasonable to assume that the earliest church would have had, as an oral tradition, a rudimenty
account of Jesus' Passion, presented as a sequence of developments in Judea, notably in Jerusalem.
The church would also have had collections of Jesus' teachings (for example, the parables now in
Mark 4) and stories of his deeds, tied_at least in some cases_ to locales in Galilee (for example, t
miracle stories now in Mark 4, 5, and 6). Mark's most obvious literary achievement lies in his havin
drawn together many of these Galilean sayings and stories to form an extended introduction to the
Jerusalem tradition of Jesus' Passion. Furthermore, the narrative has remarkable dramatic vitality.
note of tension is struck at the very beginning by the brief picture of Jesus' conflict with the cosc
force of evil, Satan, and by the prophetic shadow that the arrest of John the Baptist casts over theinauguration of Jesus' preaching. The tension mounts (see, for instance, 2:6-7; 3:2, 6, 22), until i
culminates in open confrontation over Jesus' audacious activity in the Temple (11:18) and his verbalattacks on the Jewish authorities (12:1-12, 38-40). The confrontation then leads to a plan for dispong
of Jesus (14:1-2) and finally to his arrest, trial, and crucifixion. In the Passion narrative Jesus'antagonists are human beings, but even here one senses dramatic notes of cosmic conflict in the
reference to worldwide darkness at the crucifixion and in the corresponding reference to the rising n
on Easter morning.
Thus, Mark may have drawn his major clues for organizing and presenting the Galilean traditions fromthe tense, dramatic structure inherent in the Jerusalem tradition of Jesus' Passion. That is to say,e may
have threaded the theme of dramatic conflict back through the Galilean materials, consequently
presenting the vignettes of Jesus' deeds and teachings as points of confrontation anticipating the
climactic events in Jerusalem. The resulting drama is fundamentally apocalyptic, in that it presentsJesus' story as a dualistic cosmic struggle between the kingdom of God and the kingdom of Satan. It
inaugurated when Jesus, as God's son, invades the territory of Satan, in order to free human beings rom Satan's grasp (3:27). The ultimate outcome of the struggle is assured with the resurrection of Jsus, the event after which his true identity, initially kept secret (1:34, 44; 3:12; 5:43; 7:36; 826 30;
9:9), can be clearly revealed (9:9).
The Conclusion of the Gospel
There are two textual traditions for the ending of the gospel. The majority of Greek manuscripts hav
the "long ending," closing with 16:20, but a smaller number extend only through 16:8. The dominant
scholarly opinion is that the shorter version is the earlier one_that Mark came to his intended close
with 16:8, and that a 2d-century scribe, finding that an abrupt and unsatisfying ending, drew on theGospel of Luke in order to compose what seemed to him a more satisfying conclusion.
Contributed by: J. Louis Martyn
"Mark, Gospel According to," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation.
Copyright © 1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Apocalyptic Writings, Jewish and Christian writings, most of them composed between about 200 bc
and ad 100, distinguished basically by a belief in two opposing cosmic powers and in two distinct ag
(eons) of the world. Typically, the authors of apocalyptic literature believe that the present age othe
world is irredeemably evil, ruled by a Satan figure personifying evil. These authors reveal, however
that the evil age is soon to be ended, destroyed by God, who is good. The following age, the kingdomof God, will be ruled by God, will be perfect, and will last forever; and only the good, formerly
oppressed, will enjoy it.
Because most apocalyptic literature was written at a time when both Jews and early Christians were
experiencing exile or persecution, a major secondary characteristic of such literature is the freque
presentation of the authors' beliefs through visions and dreams. In this manner, and by the use of
elaborate animal and number symbolism, the authors' beliefs would be revealed only to persons able t
perceive the meaning of their visions and symbolism. Unbelievers would find their writings obscure,
not altogether unintelligible.
Several other frequently occurring important secondary characteristics of apocalyptic literature arepseudonymity, the ascribing of an apocalyptic work to some earlier revered figure (for example, a
prophet or a saint); contending hierarchies of angels and demons; a faith in God, who will fulfill t
promises of the Bible; a belief in a heavenly city and a heavenly paradise reserved for the just in e
age to come; and a belief in a messiah.
Certain books of the Bible or portions of them have been termed apocalyptic by various scholars. Thebest known and most appropriately so termed among canonical books are Daniel and Revelation. Of
the apocryphal works, the best known are Enoch and 2 Esdras.
Contributed by: Nahum Norbert Glatzer
"Apocalyptic Writings," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright
© 1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Brueghel, Pieter, the Younger (circa 1564-1638), Flemish painter, eldest son of Pieter Brueghel the lder, born in Brussels. He spent most of his career in Antwerp, where his predilection for satanic sbjects_devils, infernal regions, tortures of the damned_caused him to be called "Hell" Brueghel. I
his other works he imitated his father's style and subject matter, perpetuating them until the advenof
Flemish baroque art.
"Brueghel, Pieter, the Younger," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation.
Copyright © 1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Bogomils, members of a religious sect that arose in the 10th century in the Balkans. The chief cente
was in Bulgaria, and the cult spread among other Slavic peoples. The movement resulted from a
blending of Eastern dualism and an evangelical attempt to reform the Bulgarian Orthodox church. The ogomils, whose fundamental doctrines are attributed to a priest called Bogomil, held that the first
born son of God was Satanael. Satanael rebelled and created, in opposition to the original spiritualuniverse, a world of matter and human beings. The Supreme Father gave these human beings a life
spirit. This life spirit, however, was kept in slavery by Satanael until a second son of God, the Los,
or Christ, came down from heaven and, assuming a phantom body, broke the power of the evil spirit,
who was henceforth called only Satan, the divine name, El, being dropped. The Bogomils practiced a
severe asceticism, despised images, and rejected the sacraments. They accepted the whole of the New estament, but of the Old Testament only the Psalms and Prophets, which they interpreted allegoricaly
The morals and ideals of the Bogomils seem to have been much above the average of their time.
In 1118 the Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus executed the leader of the sect for heresy. At the ime of the Muslim conquest of Bosnia in the 15th century, the majority of the Christians who
embraced Islam, the religion of the conquerors, were Bogomils. Before the Bogomils were suppressed, hey influenced the development of the Albigensian and Cathari groups of France and Italy in the 12t and 13th centuries.
"Bogomils," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993
Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Hell, in theology, any place or state of punishment and privation for human souls after death. More trictly, the term is applied to the place or state of eternal punishment of the damned, whether angl or
human beings. The doctrine of the existence of hell is derived from the principle of the necessity f
vindication of divine justice, combined with the human experience that evildoers do not always appea
to be punished adequately in their lifetime. Belief in a hell was widespread in antiquity and is fou in
most religions of the world today.
Among the early Teutons the term hell signified a place under the earth to which the souls of all
mortals, good or bad, were consigned after death; it thus denoted a conception similar to that of th
Hebrew Sheol. Among the early Jews, as in other Semitic nations, existence in Sheol was regarded as
shadowy continuation of earthly life where all of the problems of earthly life came to an end. Laterhe
dictum of the prophet Isaiah that the king of Babylon shall be "brought down to Sheol, to the depthsf
the Pit" (14:15) gave rise to the concept of various depths of Sheol, with corresponding degrees of eward and punishment.
Early Christian writers used the term hell to designate (1) the limbo of infants, where the unbaptiz
enjoy a natural bliss but are denied the supernatural bliss of the vision of God; (2) the limbo of t
fathers, in which the souls of the just who died before the advent of Christ await their redemption,nd
which is mentioned in the Apostles' Creed, "He [Christ] descended into hell"; (3) a place of purgati
from minor offenses leading inevitably to heaven (see Purgatory) and (4) the place of punishment of atan and the other fallen angels and of all mortals who die unrepentant of serious sin. The last oftese
interpretations has the greatest acceptance today.
The duration of the punishments of hell has been a subject of controversy since early Christian time
The 3d century Christian writer and theologian Origen and his school taught that the purpose of thes
punishments was purgatorial, and that they were proportionate to the guilt of the individual. Origenheld that, in time, the purifying effect would be accomplished in all, even devils; that punishment uld
ultimately cease; and that everyone in hell eventually would be restored to happiness. This doctrinewas condemned by the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, and a belief in the eternity of the
punishments in hell became characteristic of both the Orthodox church and the Roman Catholic church.It also passed into the creeds of the churches of the Reformation but the doctrine of hell was rejecd
by many of the more radical thinkers of the Renaissance.
In modern times the belief in physical punishment after death and the endless duration of this
punishment has been rejected by many. The question about the nature of the punishment of hell is
equally controversial. Opinions range from holding the pains of hell to be no more than the remorse
conscience to the traditional belief that the "pain of loss" (the consciousness of having forfeited e
vision of God and the happiness of heaven) is combined with the "pain of sense" (actual physical
torment).
"Hell," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993 Funk &
Wagnall's Corporation
Church, E. Forrester. Entertaining Angels: A Guide to Heaven for Atheists and True Believers. Harper
1987. A meditation on angels as "little epiphanies of the divine."
Davidson, Gustav. A Dictionary of Angels: Including the Fallen Angels. Free, 1967, 1972.
Alphabetically arranged information.
Hoyt, Olga. Demons, Devils and Djinn. Abelard, 1974. Discussion of demons from the Orient, Middle
East, Europe, and America; shows similarities of beliefs.
MacGregor, Geddes. Angels: Messengers of Grace. Paragon, 1987. Covers the angel in religion,
mythology, literature, the arts.
Nauman, St. Elmo, Jr., ed. Exorcism Through the Ages. Citadel, 1974. Exorcism in the Catholic, GreekOrthodox, and Hebrew faiths; famous cases.
Russell, Jeffrey Burton. Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World. Cornell, 1986. Traces the
concept and symbol. Follow the author's The Devil (1977) and Satan (1984).
Tondrian, J. Devils and Demons: A Dictionary of Demonology. Pyramid, 1972. Reference giving
names, personalities of every demon and devil.
"Demon, saint, angel (Bibliography)," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft
Corporation. Copyright © 1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Cathari (Greek katharos, "pure"), name assumed by many widely diffused heretical Christian sects of he Middle Ages. The Cathari were characterized by a rigid asceticism and by a dualistic theology
based on the belief that the universe comprised two conflicting worlds, the spiritual world created
God and the material world created by Satan. Their views were based on the religious doctrine of
Manichaeism.
Included under the general name of Cathari were the Novatians, a sect originating in the 3d century at
advocated the denial of church membership to "fallen" Christians. The Paulicians were a kindred sect
they had been transported to the region of Thrace in southeastern Europe in the 9th century and unit
with the Bogomils. In the second half of the 12th century the Cathari were in great strength in Bulgia,
Albania, and Slavonia. They divided into two branches, distinguished as the Albanenses (absolute
dualists) and the Garatenses (moderate dualists). In Italy the heresy appeared in the 11th and 12th enturies. The Milanese adherents of the heresy were known as Patarini (or Patarines), from Pataria,a
street in Milan frequented by rag gatherers. The Patarine movement assumed some importance in the
11th century as a reform movement, emphasizing action by laypeople against a corrupt clergy.
The Cathari reached their greatest numbers in southern France; here they were called Albigenses or
Poblicants, the latter term being a corruption of Paulicians, with whom they were confused. By the le
14th century, however, the Cathari had all but disappeared. Their decline was caused, for the most pt,
by a rise in the popularity of mendicant orders. The only extant Catharist writing is a short ritualn the
Romance language of the 13th-century troubadours.
"Cathari," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993 Funk Wagnall's Corporation
Original Sin, in Christian theology, the universal sinfulness of the human race, traditionally ascrid to
the first sin committed by Adam. Sin, in Christian doctrine, is considered a state of alienation or strangement from God.
Scriptural Foundation
The term original sin is not found in the Bible. Theologians who advocate the doctrine of original s
argue, however, that it is strongly implied by Paul (see Romans 7), by John (see 1 John 5:19), and
even by Jesus himself (see Luke 11:13). Behind this New Testament teaching, lies the world view of
late Jewish apocalyptic writings. Some of these writings attribute the corrupt state of the world to
prehistoric fall of Satan, the subsequent temptation of Adam and Eve, and the immersion of human
history thereafter in disorder, disobedience, and pain (see 2 Esdras 7). In this apocalyptic framewo,
Paul and other New Testament writers interpreted the work of Christ as overcoming the tremendous
power of inherited sin and evil once and for all, reconciling humanity to God, and thus making peace
St. Augustine
The decline and fall of Rome in the late 4th and early 5th centuries produced a similar apocalyptic tmosphere of crisis and despair. In his controversy with the Romano-British monk Pelagius (c. 355-c 425) over the nature of sin and grace, Augustine was able to appeal powerfully and effectively to th
Pauline-apocalyptic understanding of the forgiveness of sin (see Pelagianism). In his elaboration ofhe
doctrine, however, Augustine imported an idea foreign to the Bible: the notion that the taint of sins
transmitted from generation to generation by the act of procreation. He took this idea from the 2d-
century theologian Tertullian, who actually coined the phrase original sin.
Subsequent Theology
Medieval theologians retained the idea of original sin, with certain qualifications. It was assertedgain
in a more recognizably Augustinian form by 16th-century Protestant reformers, primarily Martin Luthe
and John Calvin. In subsequent Protestant thought, the doctrine was diluted or circumvented. LiberalProtestant theologians developed an optimistic view of human nature that was incompatible with the
idea of original sin. The extended crisis of Western civilization that began with World War I, howev,
has aroused renewed interest in the original, basically apocalyptic, outlook of the New Testament an
in the doctrine of original sin. Such neoorthodox or postliberal theologians as Karl Barth, ReinholdNiebuhr, and Paul Tillich, however, were unwilling to attribute the transmission of sin to procreati,
instead attributing it to an already corrupt society.
Contributed by: Charles P. Price
Bibliographic entry: B65.
"Original Sin," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993 unk & Wagnall's Corporation
Witchcraft, exercise of supposed supernatural powers by people who call themselves witches. Witches re assumed to be servants of the devil and in this respect differ from sorcerers, wizards, warlocks conjurors, and other practitioners of black magic, who have supposedly learned to master the devil. itchcraft is worldwide in scope but has had greatly varying roles at different times and places.
Presuppositions
Witchcraft depends on certain presuppositions. These include the beliefs that the devil and his
subordinates, such as demons, imps, incubi, and succubi (see Demon), are real and have power in the orld; that people can have physical relations with them; and that contracts between people and
demons can be enforced.
In return for serving the devil according to contract, witches allegedly receive certain powers, notly
to cause or cure illness or transfer it from one person to another; to raise storms and to make rainr,
sometimes, to cause drought; to produce impotence in men and sterility in women; and to cause crops o fail, animals to be barren, and milk to go sour. They are believed able to arouse love through th se
of philters and potions and to destroy love by charms and spells; and to do harm or even bring aboutdeath by a glance (the so-called evil eye) or by sticking pins into a wax image of the victim. They upposedly can become invisible and fly, sometimes with the aid of a broom or special ointments.
Witches allegedly foretell the future; animate inanimate objects, revive the dead, and conjure up otr
spirits; and transform themselves and others into animals, particularly cats and wolves (see Werewol.
Traditional Organization and Practice
According to most authorities, witches in Europe in medieval times and later were organized into
covens of 12 members, mainly but not exclusively females, and a leader, usually a male. The leader
was the vicar of the devil and was regarded by many of his simpler worshipers as the devil himself. raditionally, he is represented as dressed all in black or in the guise of a goat, stag, or other hred
animal. The coven assembled once or twice a week in what was generally a local gathering. At these
meetings, the witches performed acts of devil worship, reported on their activities, and made plans r
the coming week. Larger regional meetings, called Sabbats, would draw hundreds, sometimes
thousands, of joyous revelers, including witches and their uninitiated followers.
The most celebrated witch's meeting place in ancient and medieval Europe was Brocken, the highest
peak in the Harz Mountains of Germany, the scene of the Sabbat so vividly described in Goethe's
Faust. The two most important Sabbats were held on the night of April 30 (Roodmas or Walpurgis
Night) and the night of October 31 (Halloween). Sabbats were celebrated also on the nights of July 3
(Lammas) and February 1 (Candlemas) and probably on other nights.
The opening procedure at a Sabbat was the initiation of new members. The initiation ceremony
supposedly involved taking the oath of obedience to the devil, signing contracts with him in blood, d
desecrating crucifixes and other sacred objects; assignment of a familiar, in the form of a cat, mou,
weasel, toad, or other small animal, to do the bidding of the witch; and various obscene acts of
obeisance to the devil and his vicar. Initiation was followed by general worship, including frequent
the Black Mass, which was a travesty of the Roman Catholic Mass (see Black Mass; Satanism).
Worship blended into dancing, which became increasingly wild and indecent. The Sabbat ended in a
sexual orgy.
History
From what is known of the Sabbat and from other evidence, most contemporary scholars have come to
the conclusion that withcraft was the survival of an ancient folk religion, essentially a fertility lt, that
prevailed throughout Europe before the advent of Christianity. According to this theory, the old
religion continued to exist alongside Christianity through medieval times, although constantly losin
adherents and importance. As Christianity gained the ascendancy, it persuaded most people to regard he gods of the old religion as devils. Those who continued to practice the old religion became witce
in the eyes of ecclesiastical authorities and orthodox Christians.
In the Ancient World
The belief in magical practices, through the agency of spirits and demons, was almost universal in
ancient times. Egyptian records tell of conjurers and soothsayers who derived their powers from alie
gods or devils. In the Egyptian account of the encounter between Moses and Pharaoh, Moses appears
as a practitioner of black magic and his followers as servants of an alien and abhorrent God;
accordingly they are witches. In the biblical account of the same episode, the Egyptian experts who ompeted with Moses appear as evil sorcerers. The biblical injunction "You shall not permit a
sorceress to live" (Exodus 22:18) was one of the main justifications of the witch persecutions of lar
days. An even earlier prohibition of witchcraft is contained in the Code of Hammurabi. Witchcraft
continued to flourish, however, and Chaldeans, Egyptians, and other Eastern peoples were known for
their mastery of the black art.
Witches and magicians figured significantly too in the civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome;
Thessaly, in Greece, was a particularly important center of the black magic. The first major witch-ht
in the modern sense occurred in ad 367 by order of the Roman emperor Valerian.
In its early period, the Christian church was lenient toward witchcraft. Persons proved to have
practiced it were required only to do penance. Clergymen, still struggling to consolidate the power
the church, recognized that all-out conflict with the extremely numerous devotees of the old religio
would be disastrous. They therefore tolerated the old worship and, according to reliable records,
frequently participated.
Christian Opposition
The attitude of the church began to stiffen as it grew strong enough to fight openly against the alrdy
disintegrating old faith. Also, growing social unrest during the later Middle Ages and early modern imes found expression in witchcraft as well as in heresy and secularism. Because those tendencies
threatened to undermine ecclesiastical authority, church authorities treated secularism as heresy,
identified heresy with witchcraft, and attempted to destroy all three. The most influential papal bu
against witchcraft was the Summis Desiderantes promulgated by Pope Innocent VIII (1432-92) in
1484. To implement this bull, he appointed regional inquisitors.
The witch-hunting mania obsessed Europe from about 1050 to the end of the 17th century; it subsided ccasionally but then attained greater fury. Children were encouraged to inform against parents,
husbands against wives, relatives and neighbors against one another. Witnesses were paid to testify.Inhuman tortures were inflicted to force confessions. The inquisitors did not hesitate to betray proses
of pardon to those acknowledging guilt. A class of professional witch finders arose who collected
charges and then tested the accused for evidences of witchcraft. They were paid a fee for each
conviction. The most common test was pricking. All witches were supposed to have somewhere on
their bodies a mark, made by the devil, that was insensitive to pain. If such a spot was found, it w
regarded as proof of witchcraft. Among other proofs were additional breasts, supposedly used to
suckle familiars, inability to weep, and failure in the water test. In this last-named test, if a won sank
when thrown into a body of water, she was considered innocent; if she stayed afloat, she was guilty.
Modern Witchcraft
Witchcraft in all parts of the world is essentially similar. The most important difference is that imany
simple societies witches (called also witch doctors, medicine men, or shamans) have established and nchallenged roles in the community. They are assumed to derive their power from evil spirits, but
these spirits are revered, or at least feared, by the community; persons who are thought to have accs
to the spirit world are regarded with reverence or fear. Witch doctors are depended on to cure the sk,
make rain, and assure success in the hunt and in war; to exorcise demons that may possess members ofthe community and to propitiate demons that may otherwise turn hostile; and to smell out evil,
denounce evildoers, and accomplish their ruin.
In India some tribes and members of the lower-castes commonly resort to witches and sorcerers. Even pper-caste Hindus may turn to them in time of drought and famine. Witches are an important part of dily life in Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, and other parts of Asia. Witchcraft is widespread in Afric. The voodoo of Haiti and other Latin American countries is a form of witchcraft, as are the devil cul of
the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides.
In the U.S., belief in witchcraft endures among southern mountain people and other relatively isolat
groups. Until recently the hex or witch was greatly feared in some parts of Pennsylvania, and farmer
painted special designs on their barns to ward off witch-induced disasters. Even in large cities belvers
in the evil eye and other powers of witchcraft may still be found.
In recent years, public interest in various types of occultism has increased. Many books on witchcra
and astrology have been published, and persons purporting to be witches have appeared in Europe
and the U.S.
See also Magic or Sorcery; Religion.
Bibliographic entries: B46, B47.
"Witchcraft," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993
Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Baudelaire, Charles Pierre (1821-67), French poet and critic, a leader of the symbolist school.
Baudelaire was born in Paris on April 9, 1821, and educated at the Coll?ge Louis-le-Grand. His
boyhood and adolescence were unhappy, for his father died when he was six years old, and he
disliked his stepfather and resented his mother for having married him. Opposed to his choice of a
literary career and hoping to distract him, his parents sent him on a sea voyage to India. He left t
ship, however, and returned to Paris more determined than ever to devote himself to writing. In an
effort to solve his financial problems he began to write critical journalism. His first important
publications were two booklets of art criticism, Les salons (1845-46), in which he discussed with ace
insight the paintings and drawings of such contemporary French artists as Honor? Daumier, ?douard
Manet, and Eug?ne Delacroix. He was first acclaimed as a skilled literary craftsman in 1848, when hi
translations from English of the work of the American writer Edgar Allan Poe began to appear.
Encouraged by that success and inspired by his enthusiasm for Poe, with whom he felt a strong
affinity, Baudelaire continued to translate Poe's stories until 1857.
Baudelaire's major work, the volume of poetry Fleurs du mal (Flowers of Evil), appeared in 1857.
Immediately after its publication the French government prosecuted Baudelaire on a charge of
offending public morals. Although the elite of French literature came to his support, he was fined, d
six poems in the volume were suppressed in subsequent editions. His next work, Les paradis artificie
(1860), is a self-analytical book, based on his own experiences and inspired by Confessions of an
English Opium-Eater by Thomas De Quincey. From 1864 to 1866 Baudelaire lived in Belgium.
Stricken by paralysis, he was brought back to Paris, where he died on August 31, 1867.
One of the great poets of French literature, Baudelaire possessed a classical sense of form, great sll at
choosing the perfectly appropriate word, and a true gift for musical language; he produced some of t
most mordant but loveliest verse in the French language. His originality sets him apart from the
dominant literary schools of his time. His poetry has been variously regarded as the last brilliant ummation of romanticism, the precursor of symbolism, and the first expression of modern techniques.
He viewed an individual as a divided being, drawn equally toward God and Satan; his poems deal
with the timeless conflict between the ideal and the sensual. They depict all human experiences, fro
the most sublime to the most sordid.
Among his other writings are Petits po?mes en prose, a collection of prose poems, and his intimate
journals, Fus?es (Fireworks) and Mon coeur mis ? nu (My Heart Laid Bare). All were posthumously
published in 1869.
Contributed by: Wallace Fowlie
"Baudelaire, Charles Pierre," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation.
Copyright © 1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Knights Templars, members of a medieval religious and military order officially named the Order of t
Poor Knights of Christ. They were popularly known as the Knights of the Temple of Solomon, or
Knights Templars, because their first quarters in Jerusalem adjoined a building known at the time asSolomon's Temple. The order developed from a small military band formed in Jerusalem in 1119 by
two French knights, Hugh des Payens and Godfrey of St. Omer; its aim was to protect pilgrims visitin
Palestine after the First Crusade. Military in purpose from its beginning, the order thus differed fm
the other two great 12th-century religious societies, the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem and theTeutonic Knights, which began as charitable institutions.
The Knights Templars obtained papal sanction for their order, and in 1128 at the ecclesiastical Counl
of Troyes they were given an austere rule closely patterned on that of the monastic order of Cistercns.
The Knights Templars were headed by a grand master, under whom were three ranks: knights,
chaplains, and sergeants. The knights were the dominant members, and they alone were allowed to
wear the distinctive dress of the order, a white mantle with a large red Latin cross on the back. Th
headquarters of the Knights Templars remained at Jerusalem until the fall of the city to the Muslimsn
1187; it was later located successively at Antioch, at Acre, at Caesarea, and in Cyprus.
Because the Knights Templars regularly transmitted money and supplies from Europe to Palestine, theydeveloped an efficient banking system, on which the rulers and nobility of Europe came to rely. The nights gradually became bankers for a large part of Europe and amassed great wealth. After the last
Crusades had failed and interest had waned in an aggressive policy against the Muslims, the Knights emplars were no longer needed to police Palestine. Their immense riches and power had aroused the
envy of secular as well as ecclesiastical powers, and in 1307 the impoverished Philip IV, king of
France, with the aid of Pope Clement V, arranged for the arrest of the French grand master Jacques d
Molay (1243?-1314) on charges of sacrilege and Satanism. Molay and the leading officers of the orderconfessed under torture and were eventually burned at the stake. The order was suppressed in 1312 byClement V and its property assigned to the rival Knights Hospitalers, although most of it was in fac
seized by Philip and by King Edward II, who disbanded the order in England.
Knights Templars now are members of the York Rite of the Masonic system. See Freemasonry.
"Knights Templars," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright ©
1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Manichaeism, ancient religion named for its founder, the Persian sage Mani (circa 216-76?); for a
period of several centuries, it presented a major challenge to Christianity.
Life of Mani
Mani was born into an aristocratic Persian family in southern Babylonia (now in Iraq). His father, apious man, brought him up in an austere baptist sect, possibly the Mandaeans. At the ages of 12 and ,
Mani experienced visions in which an angel designated him the prophet of a new and ultimate
revelation. On his first missionary journey, Mani reached India, where he was influenced by
Buddhism. With the protection of the new Persian emperor, Shapur I (reigned 241-72), Mani preached
throughout the empire and sent missionaries to the Roman Empire. The rapid expansion of
Manichaeism provoked the hostility of the leaders of orthodox Zoroastrianism, and when Bahram I
(reigned 274-77) succeeded to the throne, they persuaded him to have Mani arrested as a heretic, aft
which he either died in confinement or was executed.
Doctrines
Mani proclaimed himself the last prophet in a succession that included Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus,whose partial revelations were, he taught, contained and consummated in his own doctrines. Besides
Zoroastrianism and Christianity, Manichaeism reflects the strong influence of Gnosticism.
The fundamental doctrine of Manichaeism is its dualistic division of the universe into contending
realms of good and evil: the realm of Light (spirit), ruled by God, and the realm of Darkness (matte,
ruled by Satan. Originally, the two realms were entirely separate, but in a primal catastrophe the rlm
of Darkness invaded the realm of Light, and the two became mixed and engaged in a perpetual
struggle. The human race is a result and a microcosm of this struggle. The human body is material,
therefore evil; the human soul is spiritual, a fragment of the divine Light, and must be redeemed fr
its imprisonment in the body and the world. The path of redemption is through knowledge of the realmof Light imparted by the succession of divine messengers that includes Buddha and Jesus and ends in ani. With this knowledge the human soul can conquer the carnal desires that perpetuate its
imprisonment and so ascend to the divine realm.
The Manichaeans divided themselves into two classes according to their degree of spiritual perfectio
Those who were called the elect practiced strict celibacy and vegetarianism, abstained from wine, di
no labor, and preached. They were assured of ascent to the realm of Light after death. The auditors,much more numerous, were those of lower spiritual attainment. They were permitted marriage
(although procreation was discouraged), observed weekly fasts, and served the elect. They hoped to
be reborn as the elect (see Transmigration). Eventually all fragments of divine Light would be
redeemed, the world would be destroyed, and Light and Darkness would be eternally separated.
Extent and Influence
During the century after Mani's death, Manichaeism spread as far as China in the East and gained
followers throughout the Roman Empire, especially in North Africa. The 4th-century theologian St.
Augustine was a Manichaean for nine years before his conversion to Christianity. He subsequently
wrote polemics against the movement, which was also condemned by several popes and Roman
emperors. Although Manichaeism as a distinct religion had disappeared in the West by the early
Middle Ages, its continuing influence can be traced in the medieval dualistic heresies of the Albigees,
Bogomils, and Paulicians, and much of the Gnostic-Manichaean world view survives in many modern
religious movements and sects, including theosophy and the anthroposophy of the Austrian
philosopher Rudolf Steiner.
Sources
Mani, believing that the failure of previous prophets to record their teachings led to their dilutioand
distortion by disciples, wrote several books to serve as the scripture of his religion. Fragments ofhese,
along with hymns, catechisms, and other texts, were found in Chinese Turkestan and Egypt during the arly 20th century. Other sources for Manichaean doctrines include the writings of St. Augustine and
other opponents.
"Manichaeism," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993
Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Singer, Isaac Bashevis (1904-91), Polish-born American writer in the Yiddish language, who was
awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in literature for an "impassioned narrative art" that is rooted in Poli-
Jewish culture.
Singer was born on July 14, 1904, in Radzymin, Poland, and immigrated to the United States in 1935; e became a naturalized American citizen in 1943. Shortly after his arrival he became associated wit the Jewish Daily Forward, a New York City Yiddish-language newspaper. His first published novel,
Satan in Goray (1935; trans. 1955), deals with religious hysteria and the 17th-century pogroms in
which Jews in Poland were brutally massacred by cossacks. His other well-known novels include The
Family Moskat (1950; trans. 1965), the only one of his fictional works with no element of fantasy; T
Manor (1967); and The Estate (1969). The autobiographical In My Father's Court was published in
1966. Singer also wrote many imaginative short stories, including those published in Gimpel the Fooland Other Stories (1957). He won the National Book Award for A Day of Pleasure: Stories of a Boy
Growing Up in Warsaw (1969), one of his several books for children. His Collected Stories was
published in 1982 and a collected Stories for Children in 1984. A popular film, Yentl, was based on s
story Yentl the Yeshiva Boy (1983). Singer died on July 24, 1991.
Singer's work is characteristically strong in narrative line, filled with passion for life and despa at the
passing of tradition. In all his writing he drew heavily on his own Polish background and the fantass
of Jewish and medieval European folklore; many of his works he translated into English himself. Loveand Exile: A Memoir (1984) is his autobiography.
"Singer, Isaac Bashevis," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright© 1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Essay, literary composition devoted to the presentation of the writer's own ideas on a topic and
generally addressing a particular aspect of the subject. Usually, but by no means invariably, brief
scope and informal in style, the essay therefore differs from such formal expository forms as the this,
dissertation, or treatise.
Anonymity and Pseudonyms
When Renaissance individualism began to decline, essayists very commonly assumed personas, using
descriptive pseudonyms, or they remained anonymous; their themes continued, however, to be
determined by personal points of view. A pseudonym often persuaded readers that they shared
something in common with the essayist. Thus, not only for his own protection but perhaps also to
establish rapport with his audience, the Irish satirist Jonathan Swift signed himself "A Drapier" inhe
Drapier's Letters (1724-25), and pretended to be an economist in A Modest Proposal (1729)_both
highly provocative commentaries on conditions in Ireland. The essays of Swift's English
contemporaries Joseph Addison and Sir Richard Steele were meant to be the observations on the socialand political scene of a citizen of the world; the periodical in which they were published was calle
The Spectator (1711-12). Charles Lamb, one of the great English masters of the essay form, became
"the gentle Elia," using a name borrowed from a fellow clerk to sign his essays. These graceful
reminiscences and musings were published in two collections, in 1823 and 1833. In calling his essayson London life Sketches by Boz (1836)_borrowing his brother's childhood nickname_Charles Dickens
continued the tradition. The novelist William Makepeace Thackeray signed his own Yellowplush
Correspondence (1837-38)_purporting to be the social and literary observations of a footman_Michael ngelo Titmarsh. Perhaps the most prodigious assumer of personas was the American humorist
Samuel Langhorne Clemens, whose social criticism was voiced in essays variously signed Sergeant
Fathom, Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass, Satan, or W. Epaminondas Adrastus Blabb.
Magic (Conjuring), art of entertaining with tricks that are in apparent violation of natural law. Th
principles of deception that magicians use are psychological; the methods are manipulative and
mechanical. The psychological principles are misdirection, suggestion, imitation, and concealment. T
spectators do not see everything that happens, and they believe they see things that do not happen. uch faulty perception leads to false assumptions, fallacious logic, and, in the end, to the concluso
that the performer has achieved an impossible result.
Sleight of hand, that is, deception by manual dexterity, consists in the performance of certain actis
that are not perceived because they are concealed, or are misconstrued because they imitate some
innocent, natural action. In the more difficult magical tricks, the performer employs sleight of han
without the use of special apparatus. Mechanical methods involve the use of camouflaged apparatus
that the audience sees but does not comprehend and of apparatus that is not seen. The tricks employi
apparatus include stage tricks in which objects appear, disappear, change, float on air, survive
mutilation, or penetrate solid barriers.
Mentalism is a branch of conjuring in which the magician simulates telepathy, clairvoyance, and
precognition (see Psychical Research).
History
The earliest written records indicate that a distinction has probably always been made between
magicians who are entertainers and the tribal witch doctors and medicine men who claimed that their ncantations and spells could control nature and human destiny. The first magicians of recorded histr
were those of ancient Egypt. The Egyptian magician Dedi (flourished about 2700 bc) gave a
performance in which he decapitated two birds and an ox and then restored their heads. Other
Egyptian magicians were noted for their skill with the trick of the cups and balls. In this trick sml
balls seem to pass invisibly from one inverted cup or bowl to another. Finally, they are converted io
larger spheres or such unexpected things as oranges or live baby chicks.
Sleight of hand with coins, dice, and, later, playing cards added variety to the performances of
medieval magicians. The tricks of the cut and restored string and of thrusting a dagger through the m
without injury were performed in taverns and in marketplaces.
Famed Magicians
The first magician known to have performed in North America was an anonymous member of the
retinue of the Spanish explorer Hern?n Cort?s. Jacob Meyer (1735-95), whose professional name was
Philadelphia, was the first American to achieve an international reputation as a conjurer.
The Italian Giuseppe Pinetti (1750-1800) was the most imitated magician of the 18th century. His
repertory included automatons, that is, machines that operated by themselves; pretended second sight
and novel tricks with apparatus.
The British magician John Henry Anderson (1814-74), called the Wizard of the North, was a master
publicist. Among his promotional schemes were elaborate street parades, flamboyant posters, and
advertisements stenciled on pavements. His tricks frequently related to current news topics, and he ften denounced as frauds persons professing supernatural powers.
The French magician Jean Houdin (1805-71), a clockmaker who at the age of 40 became a professional
magician, revolutionized the art of magic with his ingenious stage mechanisms and effective
presentations. His textbooks were the first to treat magic scientifically, and he was the first to u
electricity as an aid in stage mysteries.
Another French magician who developed original techniques was Joseph Buatier (1848-1903), known
as Buatier De Kolta. Two of his outstanding inventions were the vanishing birdcage, a trick in which
live canary and a metal cage disappeared at his fingertips, and the expanding die, in which a 20-cm -
in) cube suddenly increased 20 times its original size and was then lifted to disclose a seated woma
The popular conception of a magician as a slender man with a mustache, goatee, and satanic air
probably started with the Herrmann family, for the famed magicians of this family all answered to th
description. Carl Herrmann (1816-87), a native of Vienna, won acclaim in Europe and America. His
younger brother, the American magician Alexander Herrmann (1844-96), called Herrmann the Great,
and his nephew Leon Herrmann (1868-1909) also toured extensively in America and abroad.
John Maskelyne (1839-1917) and his partner David Devant (1868-1941), the leading British magicians
of their day, presented many of their acts in the form of skits or short plays. Their London theateras
world famous. The American magician Harry Kellar (1849-1922) took his show, which included
sleight of hand, illusions, and the duplication of feats performed by alleged spirit mediums, aroundhe
world. He was the best-known magician in America when he retired in 1908. His successor, the
American magician Howard Thurston (1869-1936), performed throughout the U.S. for 28 years. His
show included such spectacular features as the vanishing automobile, the Indian rope trick, and
levitation. Harry August Jansen (1883-1955), who used Dante as his professional name, and Harry
Blackstone (1885-1965) carried on the tradition.
Another American magician, Harry Houdini, won world renown by effecting sensational escapes from
police handcuffs, straitjackets, and prison cells. He frequently jumped, in shackles, from bridges a
released himself underwater. The last years of Houdini's life were devoted to a relentless campaign gainst fraudulent mediums. His thorough knowledge of deceptive techniques enabled him to expose
their methods.
One of the greatest box-office attractions in the history of magic was the feat of appearing to saw
woman in half. In the first performance of this act in London in 1921, the British magician Percy
Tibbles (1879-1938), whose professional name was P. T. Selbit, cut through a box that contained a
woman assistant. She emerged unharmed. Several months later Hyman Goldstein (1867-1939), whose
professional name was Horace Goldin, presented an even more puzzling variation of the act in New
York City. The head, hands, and feet of his assistant were in full view throughout the operation. Lar
Goldin discarded the covering box, and, using a power-driven saw, performed the sawing-through and
restoration in full view.
During the 1950s magicians began to reach larger audiences than ever through television. Among the
leading magicians who made television appearances were the Indian illusionist P. C. Sorcar (1913-71)
the British performer Richard Pitchford (1899-1973), whose pantomimic sleight of hand act was
widely imitated; and the American magicians Milbourne Christopher (1914-84), whose televised acts
included making an elephant disappear and levitating an assistant, and Mark Wilson (1929- ), who hadhis own weekly program.
During the 1970s there was a resurgence of interest in magic. The German magician Siegfried
Fischbecker (1939- ) and his American assistant Roy Horn (1944- ), who specialized in making tigers nd other large animals disappear, performed in acclaimed productions in Las Vegas, Nevada. Doug
Henning (1947- ), a Canadian magician, and the American David Kotkin (1956- ), known as David
Copperfield, developed considerable theatrical skill as they performed in films and stage musicals a
well as on television. Harry Blackstone, Jr. (1934- ) carried on his father's achievements with larg
lavishly produced touring shows and a Broadway show.
Magicians' Associations
Noteworthy associations of magicians, with estimated membership in the mid-1980s, include the
Society of American Magicians (5900) and the International Brotherhood of Magicians (10,500).
Approximately 500 professional and 70,000 amateur magicians perform in the U.S.
Contributed by: Milbourne Christopher
Bibliographic entry: B768.
"Magic (Conjuring)," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Paul, Saint (circa ad 3-62), the greatest missionary of Christianity and its first theologian, calleApostle
to the Gentiles.
Life
Born to Jewish parents in a thoroughly observant home in Tarsus (now in Turkey), Paul was originallynamed for the ancient Hebrew king Saul. On the eighth day he was circumcised, as stipulated by the
Jewish Law; indeed, in all respects he was reared in accordance with the Pharisaic interpretation ofhe
Law. As a young Jew of the Diaspora (the dispersion of Jews into the Greco-Roman world), Saul took
as his everyday name the Latin Paul, a name with a sound similar to that of his Hebrew birth name.
Paul's letters reflect a keen knowledge of Greek rhetoric, something he doubtless learned as a youthn
Tarsus. But his patterns of thought also reflect formal training in the Jewish Law as preparation fo
becoming a rabbi, perhaps received in Jerusalem from the famous teacher Gamaliel the Elder
(flourished ad 20-50). By his own account Paul excelled in the study of the Law (see Galatians 1:14;Philippians 3:6); and his zeal for it led him to persecute the nascent Christian church, holding it be a
Jewish sect that was untrue to the Law and that should therefore be destroyed (see Galatians 1:13). cts portrays him as a supportive witness to the stoning of St. Stephen, the first Christian martyr.
Paul became a Christian after experiencing a vision of Christ during a journey from Jerusalem to
Dimashq (see Acts 9:1-19, 22:5-16, 26:12-18). Paul himself, in referring to this event, never uses t
term conversion, which implies shifting allegiance from one religion to another; he clearly perceive
the revelation of Jesus Christ to mark the end of all religions, and thus of all religious distinctis (see
Galatians 3:38). Instead, he consistently spoke of God's having "called" him (see Election below). Pl
viewed his call to be a Christian and his call to be an evangelist to the Gentiles as a single and
indivisible event. He recognized the legitimacy of a mission to the Jews, as carried out by Peter, b he
was convinced that Christianity was God's call to all the world, and that God was making this call art
from the requirements of the Jewish Law.
According to the widely known account recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, Paul carried out three
well-defined missionary journeys (see maps). The letters reveal that Paul's missionary itinerary wasguided by three major concerns: (1) the vocation of a missionary to work in territory as yet unreach
by other Christian evangelists_hence his plan to go as far west as Spain (see Romans 15:24, 28; see lso Romans 1:14); (2) the concern of a pastor to revisit his own congregations as problems
arose_hence, for example, Paul's several visits to Corinth; and (3) an unshakable determination to
collect money from his largely Gentile churches and to deliver the collection himself to the Jewish hristian church in Jerusalem. Although scholars do not fully understand Paul's motive for this
endeavor, it is certain that he wished by it to bring together the churches of his Gentile mission wh
those of the Jewish Christians in Palestine.
From Acts it is known that Paul was arrested in Jerusalem after riots incited by his Jewish opponent
and that he was finally taken to Rome; it is also in Acts that Paul speaks of the possibility of hiswn
death (see Acts 20:24; see also Acts 20:38). He was probably executed in Rome in ad 62; Christian
tradition from the 4th century fixes the day as February 22.
Sources
The New Testament contains 13 letters bearing Paul's name as author, and 7 of these were almost
certainly written by Paul himself: 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Romans,Philippians, and Philemon. These letters, in which Paul occasionally speaks of his personal experien
and his work, are the major source of knowledge about the course of his life; most scholars concentre
on them and consult the Acts of the Apostles as a supplementary source.
Theology
Every attempt to summarize Paul's thought encounters obstacles, especially the fact that each of theletters was written to a specific church, and Paul felt it necessary to slant his teachings so as toddress
that church's unique problems and to correct its particular errors. Even the letter to the Romans_th
most systematic of Paul's epistles_fails to provide a complete exposition of Paul's theology. Certai
themes and perspectives, however, are repeated with sufficient frequency to be considered the core o
his thought.
Apocalyptic
Paul consistently assumes the basic temporal scheme of Jewish apocalyptic speculation, which positedtwo ages, the Old Age, under the dominance of Satan and his hosts, and the New Age, which God will
inaugurate at some point in the future through his superior power (see Apocalyptic Writings). Paul
believed that God's sending of his Son, Jesus Christ, had already inaugurated the New Age; yet that vent had not wholly obliterated the Old Age with its powers of sin and death. On the contrary, he
believed that the two ages were locked in combat, as could be seen, for example, from the fact that e
power of death had not yet been broken.
The ultimate outcome of the apocalyptic struggle, however, Paul considered certain, because God
struck the decisive blow for freedom (paradoxical as it might seem) in the cross_the point at which,o
all appearances, the powers of the Old Age had won a tremendous victory. He attributed the
crucifixion to "the rulers of this age," an expression by which he referred both to the political
authorities involved and to the demonic powers at work in and through them (see 1 Corinthians 2:8). hese rulers had scarcely triumphed, however, for in crucifying the "Lord of Glory," they sealed ther
own doom (see 1 Corinthians 2:6).
Thus, according to Paul, the cross, when it is perceived truly, reveals God's strange power, a powermade perfect in weakness. God affirmed this power by raising Jesus from the dead, by sending the
Holy Spirit, and by thus establishing the church as the foundation of his New Age. The church was
consequently placed in the midst of the eschatological struggle, with the assurance that God would
soon send the risen Lord to bring that struggle to a victorious conclusion (see Eschatology).
View 0f Christ
Paul quoted the formulations of earlier Christians that focused on a sacrificial view of Christ's deh
(see, for instance, 1 Corinthians 15:3), but the essence of his view of Christ lies in the assertionhat
God has made Christ the victor over the power of sin. Rejecting the prevailing Jewish-Christian
emphasis on repentance and forgiveness of sins, Paul did not call upon his hearers to repent of
particular sins, but rather announced God's victory over all sin in the cross of Christ.
The Law
The consequences of these doctrines for Paul's understanding of the Law are complex. He affirmed theLaw to be holy, just, and good, but after he turned to Christianity, he no longer believed it powerf
enough to vanquish sin and death (see Romans 8:3). Hence, one cannot depend on it. Indeed, whoever
tries to depend on it will find that, in the hands of sin, the Law can itself become an enslaving por
(see Galatians 3:23-25).
View of Human Beings
Scarcely any part of Paul's thought has been more widely misunderstood than that which involves the erms flesh and spirit. These are not to be understood as simply the constituent parts of a human ben;
for Paul they were conflicting spheres of power, because the realm of the flesh (the human realm) issusceptible to the power of sin. The solution to evil, therefore, does not lie in a code of ethics tt
people can be exhorted to obey, but rather in God's gift of the Holy Spirit, who triumphs in the lifof
the new community by bearing the fruit of love, joy, and peace.
Election
As mentioned previously, Paul spoke not of having decided to convert to Christianity from Judaism,
but of having been "called" by God. Because he said essentially the same thing of all Christians, itan
be seen that for him Christianity begins not in something people decide to do, but rather in somethi
God has already done by revealing his Son and by sending his Spirit. God has called people and is
continuing to call people into the Christian community on the basis of his own freely given grace. T
radical nature of God's power is affirmed in Paul's insistence that in the death of Christ God has
rectified the ungodly (see Romans 4:5). Human beings are not called upon to do good works in order
that God may rectify them. On the contrary, it is God who has acted first. It follows that Paul
understands even faith to be God's gift rather than a discrete and consciously intended act of the han
being (see Galatians 5:22). Like life itself, faith is something God calls into existence (see Roman
4:17). Thus, everything is seen by Paul to depend not on the will or exertion of the individual, butn
the mercy of God (see Romans 9:16).
Influence
It has been a widely held view that Paul's thought was soon virtually eclipsed by other theological eachings and was recovered only by St. Augustine in the 5th century and again by Martin Luther in te
16th century (and by them only in part). This view is now being somewhat revised. Although the
author of 2 Peter speaks of difficulties in understanding Paul (see 2 Peter 3:16), numerous communits
of the late 1st and early 2d centuries preserved Paul's letters and tried valiantly to apply aspectsf his
thought to the new situations in which they found themselves. Such Pauline communities are reflectedin Colossians, Ephesians, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus. It is true, however, that a thorough, sustaine
engagement with the theology of Paul was not undertaken until the works of Augustine and Luther; in he 20th century, the work of the German theologians Karl Barth and Ernst K?semann has renewed
interest in Paul's theology.
Contributed by: J. Louis Martyn
Biographic entry: B1256, B1503
"Paul, Saint," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993
Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Islam, a major world religion, founded in Arabia and based on the teachings of Muhammad, who is
called the Prophet. The Arabic word islam literally means "to surrender," but as a religious term inhe
Koran, it means "to surrender to the will or law of God." One who practices Islam is a Muslim.
According to the Koran, Islam is the primordial and universal religion, and even nature itself is Muim,
because it automatically obeys the laws God has ingrained in it. For human beings, who possess free ill, practicing Islam does not involve automatically obeying but rather freely accepting God's
commandments.
A Muslim is a follower of the revelation (the Koran) brought by Muhammad and thus is a member of
the Islamic community. Because the name Muslim is given in the Koran itself to the followers of
Muhammad (Koran 22:78), Muslims resent being called Muhammadans, which implies a personal cult
of Muhammad, forbidden in Islam. They also object to the spelling Moslem as a distortion of Muslim. Although exact statistics are not available, the Muslim world population is estimated at more than 9
million. Islam has flourished in very diverse climatic, cultural, and ethnic regions. The major ethn
groups composing the world community of Islam include the Arabs (North Africa and the Middle
East); Turks and Turkic peoples (Turkey, parts of the former USSR, and Central Asia); Iranians;
Afghans; the Indo-Muslims (Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh); Southeast Asians (Malaysia, Indonesia, nd the Philippines); and a small percentage of Chinese. In Europe, Islam is the second largest reliin
after Christianity.
Islamic Doctrine
The two fundamental sources of Islamic doctrine and practice are the Koran and the Sunna, or the
exemplary conduct of the Prophet Muhammad.
The Koran
Muslims regard the Koran as the speech of God to Muhammad, mediated by Gabriel, the angel of
revelation; they believe that God himself, not Muhammad, is the author and therefore that the Koran
infallible. The document called the Koran is the collection of the passages revealed to Muhammad
during the approximately 22 years of his prophetic life (610-32). It is divided into 114 chapters ofunequal length, the shortest containing only 3 short verses, the longest containing 306 long verses.Both Islamic and non-Islamic scholars agree on the essential integrity of the text of the Koran
throughout its history.
The Sunna
The second substantive source of Islam, the Sunna, or example of the Prophet, is known through
Hadith, the body of traditions based on what the Prophet said or did regarding various issues. Unlik
the Koran, which was memorized_either in whole or in part_by many followers of Muhammad during
their lifetime and which was compiled in written form quite early, the transmission of Hadith was
largely verbal, and the present authoritative collections date from the 9th century.
Unlike the Koran, Hadith is not considered infallible. In the early Islamic period, whether or not t
Prophet himself was infallible (apart from the revelations in the Koran) was a point of controversy.Later, however, the consensus of the Islamic community was that both he and the earlier prophets wer
infallible. Because Hadith was mainly transmitted orally, however, it was conceded that error could nter into the human transmission. Hadith, therefore, is a source secondary to the Koran, although i s
almost equally fundamental for most Muslims.
Recent research, not yet accepted by the large body of Muslims, has demonstrated that much of Hadithwas not derived from the Prophet but represents the opinions of the early generations of Muslims,
opinions that were subsequently attributed to the Prophet. In some cases a genuine statement of the rophet was preserved, but additions to it were later made by Muslims who wanted to advance certain teological or legal opinions.
God
Monotheism is central to Islam_a belief in only one God, unitary and omnipotent. Belief in a plurali
of gods or in the extension of God's divinity to any person is emphatically rejected. God created nare
through a primordial act of mercy; otherwise there would be pure nothingness. God provided each
element of his creation with its own proper nature, or laws governing its conduct, so that it followa
characteristic pattern. The result is a well-ordered, harmonious whole, a cosmos in which everythinghas its proper place and limitations. No gaps, dislocations, or ruptures, therefore, are found in nare.
God presides over and governs the universe, which, with its orderly functioning, is the primary signand proof of God and his unity. Violations of the natural order in the form of miracles occurred in e
past, but although the Koran accepts the miracles of earlier prophets (Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, nd others), it declares them outdated; Muhammad's miracle is the Koran, the like of which no human cn produce.
According to Islam, God has four fundamental functions with respect to the universe and to humanity n particular: creation, sustenance, guidance, and judgment. God, who created the universe out of she
mercy, is bound to sustain it as well. All nature has been made subservient to humanity, which may
exploit it and benefit from it. The ultimate purpose of humanity, however, is to be in the "service
God," that is, to worship him alone and to construct an ethical social order free from "corruptions.
Ethics
The Koran declares that "reforming the earth" is the ideal of human endeavor. The basic criticism ofhumanity in the Koran is that it is too proud and too petty, narrow-minded, and selfish. "Man is by ature timid," says the Koran. "When evil befalls him, he panics, but when good things come to him h prevents them from reaching others." This pettiness causes individuals to become so submerged in
nature that they lose sight of its Creator_only when nature fails them do they, in their utter frusttion,
turn to God. Because of their shortsightedness, people fear that charity and sacrificing for others ll
result in their own impoverishment. This, however, is Satan's influence, for God promises prosperityin return for generosity to the poor. The Koran insists, therefore, that individuals transcend theirpettiness and enlarge themselves. By doing so, they will develop the inner moral quality that the Kon
calls taqwa (usually translated "fear of God," but actually meaning "to guard against danger"). By ts
quality humans can discern right from wrong and, above all, can evaluate their own actions properly,escaping self-deception, a danger to which they are always exposed. Often people think they have
done something consequential, but the deed has no importance in the long run. The real worth of a
person's deeds can be judged only through taqwa, and an individual's aim should be the ultimate
benefit of humanity, not the immediate pleasures or ambitions of the self.
Prophets
Because of humanity's moral weakness, God has sent prophets to teach both individuals and nations
correct moral and spiritual behavior. After creation and sustenance, God's mercy is consummated in
these acts of divine guidance. Although right and wrong are inscribed in the human heart, the inabily
or refusal of many people to decipher that inscription has made prophetic guidance necessary. This
guidance is universal; no one on earth has been left without it. Adam was the first prophet; after h
expulsion from the Garden of Eden, God forgave him his lapse (for this reason Islam does not accept he doctrine of original sin). The messages of all prophets emanate from the same divine source, whih
in the Koran is called "The Preserved Tablets," "The Hidden Book," or "The Mother of All Divine
Books." Religions are, therefore, basically one, even though their institutionalized forms may diffe
Prophets are one indivisible unity, and one must believe in all of them, for to accept some and reje
others amounts to a denial of the divine truth. All prophets are human; they have no share in divini,
but they are the most perfect exemplars for humanity. Some prophets are superior to others, however,particularly in steadfastness under trial. Thus, the Koran describes Muhammad as the "Seal of all
Prophets." From this arises the Islamic belief that prophethood was consummated and finished with
him and that the Koran is the final and most nearly perfect revelation of God, consummating and
superseding all earlier ones.
The Day of Judgment
The divine activities of creation, sustenance, and guidance end with the final act of judgment. On t
Day of Judgment, all humanity will be gathered, and individuals will be judged solely according to
their deeds. The "successful ones" will go to the Garden (heaven), and the "losers," or the evil, wi go
to hell, although God is merciful and will forgive those who deserve forgiveness. Besides the Last
Judgment, which will be on individuals, the Koran recognizes another kind of divine judgment, which s meted out in history to nations, peoples, and communities. Nations, like individuals, may be
corrupted by wealth, power, and pride, and, unless they reform, these nations are punished by being estroyed or subjugated by more virtuous nations.
Practices and Institutions
Five duties, known as the "pillars of Islam," are regarded as cardinal in Islam and as central to thlife
of the Islamic community.
Profession of Faith
In accordance with Islam's absolute commitment to monotheism, the first duty is the profession of fah
(the Shahadah): "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet." This profession must be
made publicly by every Muslim at least once in his or her lifetime "by the tongue and with full asse
from the heart"; it defines the membership of an individual in the Islamic community.
Prayer
The second duty is that of five daily prayers. The first prayer is offered before sunrise, the seconin
the very early afternoon, the third in the late afternoon, the fourth immediately after sunset, and e fifth
before retiring and before midnight. In prayers, Muslims face the Kaaba, a small, cube-shaped structe
in the courtyard of al-Haram (the "inviolate place"), the great mosque of Mecca. A single unit of prer
consists of a standing posture, then a genuflection followed by two prostrations, and finally a sittg
posture. In each of these postures prescribed prayers and portions of the Koran are recited.
All five prayers in Islam are congregational and are to be offered in a mosque, but they may be offed
individually if, for some reason, a person cannot be present with a congregation. Individual, devotial
prayers are not obligatory, but Muslims are encouraged to offer them after midnight; they are calledtahajjud ("night-vigil"). In the Middle East and Indonesia, women also join the congregational praye,
although they pray in a separate room or hall. In the Indian subcontinent, Muslim women pray at home
Before praying, the worshiper must make ablutions.
Before every congregational prayer, a formal public call to prayer is made from a minaret of the
mosque by the muezzin (from azan, "call to prayer"). In recent times the call has been made over a
microphone so that those at some distance can hear it.
Special early afternoon prayers are offered on Fridays in congregational mosques. These are precededby a sermon from the pulpit by the imam, also called the Khatib. On the two annual religious festiva
days called Ids (one immediately after the end of the fasting month of Ramadan and the other
immediately after the pilgrimage to Mecca), there are special prayers followed by sermons in the
morning. These prayers are not held in mosques but in a wide space outside set apart for this purpos
Almsgiving
The third cardinal duty of a Muslim is to pay zakat. This was originally the tax levied by Muhammad and later by Muslim states) on the wealthy members of the community, primarily to help the poor. It
was also used for winning converts to Islam; for the ransom of war captives; for the relief of peoplin
chronic debt; for jihad (the struggle for the cause of Islam, or holy war), which, according to the ran
commentators, includes health and education; and for facilitating travel and communications. Only
when zakat has been paid is the rest of a Muslim's property considered purified and legitimate. In mt
Muslim states zakat is no longer collected by the government and instead has become a voluntary
charity, but it is still recognized as an essential duty by all Muslims. In a number of countries stng
demands have been made to reinstate it as a tax, but this would entail a complete revision of its ras
and structure to conform with the needs of a modern state.
Fasting
The fourth duty is the fast of the month of Ramadan. Because the Islamic calendar is lunar, Islamic estivals are not confined to any one season. Even during hot summers, most Muslims meticulously
observe fasting. During the fasting month, one must refrain from eating, drinking, smoking, and sexu
intercourse from dawn until sunset. Throughout the month one must abstain from all sinful thoughts
and actions. Those who can afford it must also feed at least one poor person. If one is sick or on ajourney that causes hardship, one need not fast but must compensate by fasting on subsequent days.
Pilgrimage
The fifth duty is the pilgrimage to the Kaaba at Mecca. Every adult Muslim who is physically and
economically able to do so must make this pilgrimage at least once in his or her lifetime. Held duri
the first ten days of the last month of the lunar year, the rite requires that the pilgrims enter in a state
of purity in which they wear only a seamless white garment, abstain from shedding blood and cutting ither hair or nails, and avoid all forms of vulgarity. The main constituents of this lengthy rite aeseven
circumambulations of the Kaaba, walking fast between two mounds near the sanctuary seven times,
marching three miles to Mina, then proceeding six miles to Arafat, staying the afternoon and listeni to
a sermon there, then marching back to Mecca, offering a sacrifice in a memory of Abraham's attemptedsacrifice of his son, and once again circumambulating the Kaaba.
During recent years, air travel has allowed Muslims from all parts of the world to perform the
pilgrimage. In 1977 the reported number was close to 2 million. Through the centuries, the Kaaba hasplayed an important role as a meeting place of Islamic scholars for the exchange and diffusion of ids.
For the past two decades, the pilgrimage has also been used to promote political solidarity in the
Muslim world.
Besides these five basic institutions, other important laws of Islam include the prohibition of alcol
consumption and of eating the flesh of swine. Besides the Kaaba, the central shrine of Islam, the mo
important centers of Islamic life are the mosque, where daily prayers are offered, and the cathedralmosque, where Friday services are held.
Islam and Society
The Islamic view of society is theocratic in the sense that the goal of all Muslims is "God's rule o
earth." This does not, however, imply clerical rule, although religious authorities have had consideble
political influence in some Muslim societies. Islamic social philosophy is based on the belief that l
spheres of life_spiritual, social, political, and economic_form an indivisible unity that must be
thoroughly imbued with Islamic values. This ideal informs such concepts as "Islamic law" and the
"Islamic state" and accounts for Islam's strong emphasis on social life and social duties. Even the ardinal religious duties prescribed in the five pillars of Islam have clear social implications.
The Community of the Faithful
The basis of Islamic society is the community of the faithful, which is consolidated by the performae
of the five pillars of Islam. Its mission is to "command good and prohibit evil" and thus to reform e
earth. The community must be moderate, however, and avoid all extremes. During the Middle Ages,
Islamic religious authorities began to claim a degree of infallibility for the community, but the Eupean
colonial domination of Muslim countries led to speculation that the community must have erred and
was being punished. In the 20th century, Islamic thinkers have consequently offered various diagnose
of Muslim society and proposals for reform.
Education
The Islamic university system contributed to the great cultural developments of Islam. The universits
were founded as institutions of religious learning, where the ulama (religious scholars), qadis (juds),
muftis (interpreters of the law), and other high religious officials were trained. These officials fmed
an important political class, especially in Turkey and India, where they had much influence over sta
policies. In many 20th-century Muslim countries, however, the ulama have lost much of their former
influence, especially among Western-educated Muslims who do not wish a strictly religious code of
government; in Turkey the ulama have been stripped of legal power altogether.
In the 9th century the caliph al-Mamun (786-833) founded an academy at Baghdad for the study of
secular subjects and for the translation of Greek philosophical and scientific texts. In the 10th ceury,
at Cairo, the Fatimid caliphs also established an academy for secular learning, al-Azhar, still the st
important center for Islamic learning. Rulers and wealthy patrons usually made funds available for
individual scholars. Medieval Islamic scholars made important contributions to the fields of
philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and the natural sciences; between the 9th and 13th
centuries the Islamic community was the most productive civilization in the world.
Among other famous Islamic universities, the Nizamiya, founded (1067) at Baghdad by the Iranian
statesman Nizam al-Mulk (1018-92), taught law, theology, and Islamic tradition and had on its staff e
famous philosopher al-Ghazali; the Mustansiriya, founded (1234) at Baghdad, taught religious law andother subjects.
Islamic Law
Islamic law, called the Sharia, spells out the moral goals of the community. In Islamic society,
therefore, the term law has a wider significance than it does in the modern secular West, because
Islamic law includes both legal and moral imperatives. For the same reason, not all Islamic law can
stated as formal legal rules or enforced by the courts. Much of it depends on conscience alone.
The Four Sources
Islamic law is based on four sources, or "roots of law." The first two are the documentary sources, e
Koran and the Sunna, or Hadith. The third source is called ijtihad ("responsible individual opinion" It
has been used when an issue is not covered by passages in the Koran or Sunna; a jurist may then
resolve the issue by using analogical reasoning (qiyas). Such reasoning was first employed when
Islamic theologians and jurists in conquered countries were confronted with the need to integrate lol
customs and laws with the Koran and Sunna. Later, Islamic authorities considered this original thinkg
a threat to the Koran and Sunna and laid down strict rules limiting its use. Because of the profoundchanges in the Muslim world community during the last few decades, however, a renewed emphasis
has been placed on the innovative thinking of ijtihad. The fourth source is the consensus (ijma) of e
community, which is reached by gradually discarding some opinions and accepting others. Because
Islam has no official dogmatic authority, this is an informal process that often requires a long perd of
time.
Schools of Law
Five schools of law developed in Islam, four Sunnite and one Shiite. The four Sunnite schools emerge
in the first two centuries of Islam: the Shafi'i, the Hanafi, the Maliki, and the Hanbali. All use stematic
reasoning to deal with areas of law not covered by the Koran or Sunna. They differ primarily in thei
emphasis on textual authority or analogical reasoning, but each school recognizes the conclusions ofthe others as being perfectly legitimate and within the framework of orthodox Islam. Each school ten
to predominate in certain areas: the Hanafi in the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, Turkey, and tosome extent in Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Palestine; the Maliki in North Africa; the Shafi'i inSoutheast Asia; and the Hanbali in Saudi Arabia. The Shiite school (called the Jafari) prevails in In.
Jihad
The term jihad, usually translated "holy war," designates the struggle toward the Islamic goal of
"reforming the earth," which may include the use of armed force if necessary. The prescribed purposeof jihad, however, is not territorial expansion or the forcible conversion of people to Islam, but t
assumption of political power in order to implement the principles of Islam through public institutis.
The concept of jihad was nevertheless used by some medieval Muslim rulers to justify wars motivated y purely political ambitions.
According to classical Islamic law, the world was divided into three zones: the House of Islam, wher
Muslims are ascendant; the House of Peace, those powers with whom Muslims have peace agreements;
and the House of War, the rest of the world. Gradually, however, jihad came to be interpreted more i
defensive than in offensive terms. In the 20th century the concept of jihad inspired Muslims in thei
struggle against Western colonialism.
The Family
The early Islamic community aimed at strengthening the family at the expense of old tribal loyalties
although it was not able to suppress the latter. The Koran stresses filial piety and "love and mercy
between husband and wife. Men and women are declared equal, "except that men are a degree higher"
because they are charged with the household expenditure. Sexual fidelity is sternly demanded, and
proven adultery is punishable by 100 lashes.
The Koran advocates measures that were intended to improve the condition of women. The infanticide
of girls, formerly prevalent among certain tribes, is forbidden; daughters are given a share of
inheritances, although only half of that allotted to boys. The Koran repeatedly emphasizes the kind reatment of women and grants to wives the right of divorce in case of maltreatment. The Koran
approves polygamy, allowing as many as four wives, but also states, "if you fear you cannot do justi
among co-wives, then marry only one wife." The abuse of polygamy and of the husband's right in
traditional Islam to repudiate his wife, even when her conduct is faultless, has recently led to theenactment of reformed family laws in most Muslim countries.
History
In Muhammad's time (circa 570-632), the Arabian Peninsula was inhabited by nomadic Bedouins
engaged in herding and brigandage, and by city-dwelling Arabs engaged in trade. The religion of the rabs was polytheistic andidolatrous. Nonetheless, an old tradition of monotheism, or at least a bele
in a supreme deity, existed. Jewish and Christian communities probably contributed to a growing
receptivity to monotheistic doctrines, although neither Judaism nor Christianity proved attractive tthe
Arabs. A number of monotheistic preachers preceded Muhammad but had little success.
Muhammad
Muhammad began his ministry at the age of 40, when, he claimed, the archangel Gabriel appeared to
him in a vision. Muhammad confided to his family and close friends the substance of this and
succeeding visions. After four years he had converted some 40 persons to his views, and he then
began to preach openly in his native city of Mecca. Ridiculed by the Meccans, he went in 622 to
Medina. It is from this event, the Hegira that the Islamic calendar is dated. At Medina, Muhammad so
held both temporal and spiritual authority, having been recognized as a lawgiver and prophet. Arab
and Jewish opposition to him in Medina was crushed, and war was undertaken against Mecca.
Increasingly, Arab tribes declared their allegiance to him, and Mecca surrendered in 630. At his dea
in 632 Muhammad was the leader of an Arab state growing rapidly in power.
Muhammad's central teachings were the goodness, omnipotence, and unity of God and the need for
generosity and justice in human relations. Important elements from Judaism and Christianity were
incorporated into the emergent religion, but it was rooted in the pre-Islamic Arabic tradition; suchcentral institutions as the pilgrimage and the Kaaba shrine were absorbed, in modified form, from
Arabic paganism. Muhammad, in reforming the pre-Islamic Arabic tradition, also confirmed it.
The Classical Period
During the first centuries of Islam (7th-10th century), its law and theology, the basic orthodox Islic
disciplines, were developed. Theology is next in importance to law in Islam, although it is not as
essential as Christian theology has been to Christianity. Theological speculation began soon after
Muhammad's death. The first major dispute was provoked by the assassination of the third caliph,
Uthman ibn Affan (575?-656), and subsequent political struggles. The question was whether a Muslim
remains a Muslim after committing grave sins. A fanatical group called the Kharijites maintained thathe
commission of serious sins, without due repentance, excludes even an observant Muslim (who
continues to subscribe to the articles of faith) from the Islamic community. Good works, therefore, d
not just faith, are essential to Islam. The Kharijites came to regard almost all Muslim political auorities
as impious, and after numerous rebellions, they were finally suppressed. A more moderate faction of harijites, called ibadis, survived, however, and still exists in North and East Africa, Syria, and mn.
The Mutazilites
The translation of Greek philosophical works into Arabic in the 8th and 9th centuries resulted in th
emergence of the first major Islamic theological school, called the Mutazilites, who stressed reasonnd
rigorous logic. The question of the importance of good works persisted, and the Mutazilites maintain
that a person who committed a grave sin without repenting was neither a Muslim nor a non-Muslim but ccupied a middle ground. Their fundamental emphasis, however, was on the absolute unity and
justice of God. They declared God to be pure Essence without attributes, because attributes would
imply multiplicity. Divine justice requires human free will, because if the individual is not free t
choose between good and evil, reward and punishment become absurd. God, because he is perfectly
just, cannot withhold reward from the good or punishment from the evil. As rationalists, the Mutaziles
maintained that human reason is competent to distinguish between good and evil, although it may be
supplemented by revelation. The theology of the Mutazilites was established as a state creed by the aliph al-Mamun, but by the 10th century a reaction had set in, led by the philosopher al-Ashari (87-935?) and his followers. They denied the freedom of the human will, regarding the concept as
incompatible with God's absolute power and will. They also denied that natural human reason can leadto a knowledge of good and evil. Moral truths are established by God and can be known only through
revelation. The views of al-Ashari and his school gradually became dominant in Sunnite, or orthodox,Islam, and they still prevail among most conservative Muslims. The tendency of the Sunnites, however
has been to tolerate and accommodate minor differences of opinion and to emphasize the consensus of he community in matters of doctrine.
Medieval Philosophy
The Mutazilites were probably the first Muslims to borrow Greek philosophical methods in
expounding their views. Some of their opponents used the same methods, and the debate initiated the slamic philosophical movement, which relied heavily on the Arabic translation and study of Greek
philosophical and scientific works, encouraged by the caliph al-Mamun.
The first important Islamic philosopher was the 9th-century Arab al-Kindi, who tried to bring the
concepts of Greek philosophy into line with the revealed truths of Islam, which he still considered uperior to philosophical reasoning. As were subsequent Islamic philosophers of this period, he was pimarily influenced by the works of Aristotle and by Neoplatonism, which he synthesized into a singe philosophical system. In the 10th century, the Turk al-Farabi was the first Islamic philosopher to
subordinate revelation and religious law to philosophy. Al-Farabi argued that philosophical truth ishe
same throughout the world and that the many different existing religions are symbolic expressions ofan ideal universal religion.
In the 11th century, the Persian Islamic philosopher and physician Avicenna achieved the most
systematic integration of Greek rationalism and Islamic thought, but it was at the expense of severa
orthodox articles of faith, such as the belief in personal immortality and in the creation of the wod. He
also contended that religion is merely philosophy in a metaphorical form that makes it palatable to e
masses, who are unable to grasp philosophical truths in rational formulations. These views led to
attacks on Avicenna and on philosophy in general by more orthodox Islamic thinkers, notably the
theologian al-Ghazali, whose book Destruction of the Philosophers had much to do with the eventual
decline of rationalist philosophical speculation in the Islamic community. Averro?s, the 12th-centur
Spanish-Arab philosopher and physician, defended Aristotelian and Neoplatonic views against al-
Ghazali and became the most significant Islamic philosopher in Western intellectual history through s
influence on the Scholastics.
Sufism
The mystical movement called Sufism originated in the 8th century, when small circles of pious
Muslims, reacting against the growing worldliness of the Islamic community, began to emphasize the
inner life of the spirit and moral purification. During the 9th century Sufism developed into a mystal
doctrine, with direct communion or even ecstatic union with God as its ideal. This aspiration to
mystical union with God violated the orthodox Islamic commitment to monotheism, and in 922 al-
Hallaj (circa 858-922), who was accused of having asserted his identity with God, was executed in
Baghdad. Prominent Sufis subsequently attempted to achieve a synthesis between moderate Sufism and
orthodoxy, and in the 11th century al-Ghazali largely succeeded in bringing Sufism within the orthod
framework.
In the 12th century Sufism ceased to be the pursuit of an educated elite and developed into a comple
popular movement. The Sufi emphasis on intuitive knowledge and the love of God increased the
appeal of Islam to the masses and largely made possible its extension beyond the Middle East into
Africa and East Asia. Sufi brotherhoods multiplied rapidly from the Atlantic to Indonesia; some
spanned the entire Islamic world; others were regional or local. The tremendous success of these
fraternities was due primarily to the abilities and humanitarianism of their founders and leaders, w
not only ministered to the spiritual needs of their followers but also helped the poor of all faithsnd
frequently served as intermediaries between the people and the government.
The Shiites
The Shiites are the only surviving major sectarian movement in Islam. They emerged out of a dispute ver political succession to Muhammad, the Shiites claiming that rule over the community is a divine
right of the Prophet's descendants through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali. The Shiites
believe in a series of 12 infallible leaders beginning with Iman Ali and are thus also known as the Twelvers." The 12th and last imam disappeared in 880, and Shiites await his return, at which time te
world will be filled with justice. Until that time even the best ruler is only half legitimate. The iites, in
contrast to the orthodox Sunnites, emphasize esoteric knowledge rather than the consensus of the
community.
Other Sects
Several small sects have developed out of Shia Islam, the most important of which is the Ismailis. T
theological ideas of the Ismailis are more radical than those of the Shiites and are largely derivedrom
Gnosticism and Neoplatonism. Ismailis are found mainly in India and Pakistan; others have recently
emigrated from East Africa to Canada. An offshoot of Ismailism is the Druse sect, which arose after e
mysterious disappearance in Cairo of the Ismaili Fatimid caliph al-Hakim (985-1021). Many Druses
believe al-Hakim to have been an incarnation of God.
In 1841 a young Shiite, Mirza Ali Muhammad (circa 1819-50) of Shiraz, in Iran, proclaimed himself th
Bab ("gateway" to God) and assumed a messianic role. His followers, called the Babis, were severely ersecuted by the Shiite clergy, and he was executed in 1850. Under the leadership of his disciple
Mirza Hoseyn Ali Nuri (1817-92), known as Bahaullah, the Bahais (as the group came to be called)
developed a universalist pacifist doctrine, declared Bahai to be a religion independent of Islam, an
won many converts in the United States.
Islam in the Modern World
The stagnation of Islamic culture after the medieval period led to a reemphasis on original thinking(ijtihad) and to religious reform movements. Unlike the primarily doctrinal and philosophical
movements of the Middle Ages, the modern movements were chiefly concerned with social and moral
reform. The first such movement was the Wahhabi, named after its founder, Ibn Abd al-Wahhabi
(1703-92), which emerged in Arabia in the 18th century and became a vast revivalist movement with
offshoots throughout the Muslim world (see Wahhabis). The Wahhabi movement aimed at reviving
Islam by purifying it of un-Islamic influences, particularly those that had compromised its originalmonotheism, and by stressing the responsibility of Muslims to think independently rather than blindl
accepting tradition.
Other Islamic reformers have been influenced by Western ideas. The most influential reformist of the19th century was the Egyptian Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905), who believed that reason and modern
Western thought would confirm the truth of Islam rather than undermine it, and that Islamic doctrinecould be reformulated in modern terms. Sir Muhammad Iqbal is the most important modern
philosopher to have attempted the reinterpretation of Islamic doctrines. Other intellectuals in Egyp
Turkey, and India attempted to reconcile with the teachings of the Koran such ideas as those raised
constitutional democracy, science, and the emancipation of women. The Koran teaches the principle of"rule by consultation," which in modern times, they argued, can best be realized by representative
government rather than monarchy. They pointed out that the Koran encourages the study and
exploitation of nature, but Muslims, after a few centuries of brilliant scientific work, had passed on to
Europe and abandoned it. They argued that the Koran had given women equal rights, but these had
been usurped by men, who had grossly abused polygamy.
Although the modernist ideas were based on plausible interpretations of the Koran, they were bitterl
opposed by Islamic fundamentalists, especially after the 1930s. The reaction against modernism has
been gathering momentum since that time for several reasons. The fundamentalists do not oppose
modern education, science, and technology per se, but they accuse the modernists of being purveyors f Western morality. They believe that the emancipation of women, as conceived by the West, is
responsible for the disintegration of the family and for permissive sexual morality. Some
fundamentalists are suspicious of democracy because they do not trust the moral sense of the masses.Moreover, modernist leaders and officials in some Muslim countries have failed to improve
significantly the condition of the mostly poor and rapidly increasing populations of those countries
Finally, and perhaps most important, the bitter resentment Muslims feel toward Western colonialism
has made many of them regard everything Western as evil.
During the modern period Islam has continued to win new converts, especially among black Africans
and some black Americans, to whom its fundamental egalitarianism appeals.
Islam and Other Religions
Convinced of the absolute truth of Islam, Muslims traditionally have not sought dialogue with
representatives of other religions, although medieval Islamic scholars wrote fairly objective works bout them. Recently, however, Muslims have engaged in dialogues with representatives of
Christianity and Judaism, recognized in Islam as the two other "religions of the book" (based on
revelation). Nonetheless, memories of Western colonialism have generated suspicion and impeded
ecumenical efforts.
See also Arabic Literature; Islamic Art and Architecture; Islamic Music. For additional information
historical figures, see biographies of those whose names are not followed by dates.
Contributed by: Fazlur Rahman
Bibliographic entries: B131, B654, B876.
"Islam," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993 Funk & agnall's Corporation
Jesus Christ (between 8 and 4 bc-about ad 29), the central figure of Christianity, born in Bethlehemn
Judea. The chronology of the Christian era is reckoned from a 6th-century dating of the year of his irth, which is now recognized as being from four to eight years in error. Jesus is believed by the rat
majority of Christians to be the incarnate Son of God, and to have been divinely conceived by Mary, he wife of Joseph, a carpenter of Nazareth. The name Jesus is derived from a Greek rendering of the
Hebrew name Joshua, or in full Yehoshuah ("Jehovah is deliverance"). The title Christ is derived fro
the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh ("anointed one"), or Messiah. "Christ" was sed by Jesus' early followers, who regarded him as the promised deliverer of Israel and later was
made part of Jesus' proper name by the church, which regards him as the redeemer of all humanity.
The principal sources of information concerning Jesus' life are the Gospels, written in the latter hf of
the 1st century to facilitate the spread of Christianity throughout the ancient Western world. The
Epistles of St. Paul and the Book of Acts also contain information about Jesus. The scantiness of
additional source material and the theological nature of biblical records caused some 19th-century
biblical scholars to doubt his historical existence. Others, differently interpreting the available urces,
produced naturalistic biographies of Jesus. Today, however, scholars generally agree that his existee
is authenticated, both by Christian writers and by a number of Roman and Jewish historians.
Birth and Early Life
Two of the Gospels, those of St. Matthew and St. Luke, provide information about Jesus' birth and
childhood. They also provide genealogies tracing Jesus' descent through the Hebrew patriarch
Abraham and the 10th-century bc king David (see Matthew 1:1-17; Luke 3:23-38). Presumably, the
genealogies are offered as proof of Jesus' messiahship. According to Matthew (see 1:18-25) and Luke see 1:1-2:20), Jesus was miraculously conceived by his mother. He was born at Bethlehem, where
Joseph and Mary had gone to comply with the Roman edict of enrollment for the census. Matthew
alone (see 2:13-23) describes the flight into Egypt, when Joseph and Mary took the child out of reac
of the Judean king Herod the Great. Only Luke relates the compliance of Joseph and Mary with the
Jewish law, which required circumcision and presentation of the firstborn son at the Temple in
Jerusalem (see 2:21-24); Luke also describes their later journey (see 2:41-51) with the young Jesus
the Temple for the Passover feast. The Gospels mention nothing concerning Jesus from the time he was12 years old until the time he began his public ministry, about 18 years later.
Beginning of His Public Ministry
All three synoptic Gospels (the first three Gospels, so called because they present a similar overal
view of the life of Christ) record Jesus' public ministry as beginning after the imprisonment of Johthe
Baptist, and as lasting for about one year. The Gospel of John describes it as beginning with the
choosing of his first disciples (see 1:40-51), and as lasting for perhaps three years.
The account of the public ministry and immediately preceding events is generally the same in the
synoptic Gospels. Each describes the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River by John the Baptist. Each eports that after the baptism Jesus retired to the neighboring wilderness for a 40-day period of fatng
and meditation. All three synoptists mention that in this period, which some biblical scholars view a
time of ritual preparation, the devil, or Satan, tried to tempt Jesus. Matthew (see 4:3-9) and Luke ee
4:3-12) add descriptions of the temptations brought forth by the devil.
After Jesus' baptism and retirement in the wilderness, he returned to Galilee, visited his home in
Nazareth (see Luke 4:16-30), where his fellow Nazarenes objected to him, and then moved to
Capernaum and began teaching there. About this time, according to the synoptists, Jesus called his fst
disciples, "Simon who is called Peter and Andrew his brother" (Matthew 4:18) and "James the son of
Zebedee and John his brother" (Matthew 4:21). Later, as his followers increased in number, Jesus
selected 12 disciples to work with him.
Growth of Jesus' Following
Using Capernaum as a base, Jesus, accompanied by his 12 chosen disciples, traveled to neighboring
towns and villages, proclaiming the advent of the kingdom of God, as had many of the Hebrew
prophets before him. When the wounded in body and spirit asked help from him, he sought to heal
them with the power of faith. He stressed the infinite love of God for the lowest and weakest
individuals, and he promised pardon and eternal life in heaven to the most hardened sinners, provide
their repentance was sincere. The essence of these teachings is presented in Matthew 5:1-7:27, in th
Sermon on the Mount, containing the Beatitudes (see 5:3-12) and the Lord's Prayer (see 6:9-13). Jesu
emphasis on moral sincerity rather than strict adherence to Jewish ritual incurred the enmity of thePharisees, who feared that his teachings might lead to disregard for the authority of the Law, or Toh.
Other Jews feared that Jesus' activities and followers might prejudice the Roman authorities againstny
restoration of the monarchy.
Despite this growing opposition, Jesus' popularity, especially with social outcasts and the oppresse
increased. Eventually, the enthusiasm of his followers led them to make an attempt to "take him by
force, to make him king" (John 6:15). Jesus, however, frustrated this attempt, withdrawing with his isciples by ship over the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias) to Capernaum (see John 6:15-21). In
Capernaum, he delivered a discourse in which he proclaimed himself "the bread of life" (John 6:35). his discourse, emphasizing spiritual communion with God, bewildered many in his audience. They
thought the discourse a "hard saying" (John 6:60), and thereupon they "drew back and no longer went bout with him" (John 6:66).
Jesus then divided his time into periods of traveling to cities in and outside the province of Galil and
periods of instruction (of his disciples) and retirement in Bethany (see Mark 11:11-12) and Ephraim see John 11:54), two villages near Jerusalem. The synoptists generally agree that Jesus spent most f
his time in Galilee, but John centers Jesus' public ministry in the province of Judea, reporting thaJesus
made numerous visits to Jerusalem. His discourses and the miracles he performed at this time,
particularly the raising of Lazarus in Bethany (see John 11:1-44), made many people believe in him
(see John 11:45). The most significant moment in Jesus' public ministry, however, was Simon Peter's ealization at Caesarea Philippi that Jesus was the Christ (see Matthew 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20) although Jesus had not previously revealed this (according to the synoptic Gospels) to Peter or the ther disciples. This revelation, and the subsequent prediction by Jesus of his death and resurrectin
the conditions of discipleship that he laid down, and his transfiguration (at which time a voice fro
heaven was heard proclaiming Jesus to be the Son of God, thus confirming the revelation) are the
primary authority for the claims and historical work of the Christian church. (Explicit authorizatioby
Jesus is recorded in Matthew 16:17-19.)
The Last Days
On the approach of Passover, Jesus traveled toward Jerusalem for the last time. (John mentions
numerous trips to Jerusalem and more than one Passover, whereas the synoptists roughly divide the
public ministry into a Galilean section and a Judean section and record one Passover, which came aft
Jesus left Galilee for Judea and Jerusalem.) On the Sunday before the Passover, Jesus entered
Jerusalem, where he was met by crowds of people who acclaimed him enthusiastically. There (on
Monday and Tuesday, according to the synoptists), he drove from the Temple the traders and
moneychangers who, by long-established custom, had been allowed to transact business in the outer
court (see Mark 11:15-19), and he disputed with the chief priests, the scribes, the Pharisees, and t
Sadducees questions about his authority, tribute to Caesar, and the resurrection. On Tuesday, Jesus lso revealed to his disciples the signs that would usher in his Parousia, or second coming. See Secn
Coming.
On Wednesday, Jesus was anointed in Bethany in preparation for his burial (see Matthew 26:6-13;
Mark 14:3-9). Meanwhile in Jerusalem the priests and scribes, concerned that Jesus' activities wouldturn the Romans against them and the Jewish people (see John 11:48), conspired with Judas Iscariot, ne of his disciples, to arrest and kill Jesus by stealth, "for they feared the people" (Luke 22:2).Jhn
11:47-53 places the conspiracy before Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem. On Thursday, Jesus ate he Passover supper with his disciples and during the meal referred to his imminent betrayal and deah
as a sacrifice for the sins of humanity. In blessing the unleavened bread and wine during the Passov
services, he called the bread his body and the wine his "blood of the covenant, which is poured out r
many for the forgiveness of sins" (Matthew 26:27), and bid the disciples partake of each. This ritua
the Eucharist, has been repeated by Christians in worship services ever since and has become the
central sacrament in the Christian church.
After the meal Jesus and his disciples went to the Mount of Olives, where, according to Matthew (see26:30-32) and Mark (see 14:26-28), Jesus said that he would be "raised up" (from the dead). Knowing hen that the hour of his death was near, Jesus retired to the Garden of Gethsemane, where, "being i agony" (Luke 22:44), he meditated and prayed. A crowd sent by the chief priests and the elders of th
Jews, and led by Judas Iscariot, arrested him in Gethsemane.
Trial and Crucifixion
According to John (see 18:13-24), Jesus was brought after his arrest to Annas, the father-in-law of e
high priest Caiaphas, for a preliminary examination. The synoptists make no mention of this incident
They report only that Jesus was taken to a meeting of the supreme council of the Jews, the Sanhedrin
At the council meeting, Caiaphas asked Jesus to declare whether he was "the Christ, the Son of God" Matthew 26:63). Upon his affirmation (see Mark 14:62), the council condemned Jesus to death for
blasphemy. Only the Roman procurator, however, was empowered to inflict capital punishment; and
so, on Friday morning, Jesus was led before the procurator, Pontius Pilate, for sentencing. Before
judging, Pilate asked him if he was the king of the Jews, Jesus replied, "You have said so" (Mark 15).
Thereafter, Pilate tried several expedients to save Jesus before ultimately leaving the decision to e
people. When the populace insisted on his death, Pilate (see Matthew 27:24) ordered him executed.
(The actual role of Pilate has been much debated by historians. The early church tended to place themajor blame on the Jews and to deal less harshly with Pilate.)
Jesus was taken to Golgotha and nailed to a cross, the Roman punishment for political offenders and riminals. Two robbers were crucified also, one on each side of him. On the cross, above Jesus' head "they put the charge against him, which read `This is Jesus the King of the Jews'" (Matthew 27:37). ate in the day, his body was taken down, and because of the approach of the Sabbath, when burial
was not permitted, it was hastily laid in a nearby tomb by Joseph of Arimathea. (John 19:39-42 relat
that Joseph was assisted by Nicodemus.)
The Resurrection
Early on the following Sunday, "Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James" (Mark 16:1), going
to the tomb to anoint Jesus' body for burial, found the tomb empty. (Matthew 28:2 reports that an anl
appeared after an earthquake and rolled back the stone.) Inside the tomb, "a young man" (Mark 16:5) lothed in white announced to them that Jesus had risen. (This news is announced by the angel in
Matthew 28:5-6 and by two men "in dazzling apparel" in Luke 24:4. According to John 21:11-18, Mary
Magdalene saw two angels and then the risen Christ.) Later on the same day, according to Luke, John,and Mark, Jesus appeared to the women and to other of the disciples in various places in and around erusalem. Most of the disciples did not doubt that they had again seen and heard the master they ha known and followed during the time of his ministry in Galilee and Judea. A few disciples, however,
doubted it at first (see Matthew 28:17); and Thomas, who had not been present at these first
appearances, also doubted that Jesus had risen (see John 20:24-29). As recorded in the New
Testament, the resurrection of Jesus became one of the most compelling doctrines of Christianity; fo
according to this doctrine, by rising from the dead, Jesus gave humanity hope of a life after death the
kingdom of heaven.
All the Gospels add that for a brief time after his resurrection Jesus further instructed his discips in
matters pertaining to the kingdom of God. He also commissioned them to "Go _ and make disciples of
all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit" (Mattw
28:19). Finally, according to Luke (see 24:50-51), at Bethany Jesus was seen to ascend into the
heavens by his disciples. Acts 1:2-12 reports that the ascension occurred 40 days after Jesus'
resurrection. The doctrines that Jesus expounded and those concerning him were subsequently
developed into the principal tenets of Christian theology.
Theology
The life and teachings of Jesus were often matters for dispute and varying interpretation in Christi
history. Early in the life of the church, for example, it became necessary to regularize beliefs abo
Jesus and his role, to aid in conversion and to answer those Christians who adopted views
unacceptable to church leaders. For discussion of some of these questions, see such separate entriess
Christology; Incarnation. Traditions later coalesced around various events in the life of Christ.
Bibliographic entry: B67.
"Jesus Christ," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993 unk & Wagnall's Corporation
English Literature, literature produced in England from the introduction of Old English by the AngloSaxons in the 5th century to the present. The works of those Irish and Scottish authors who are closy
identified with English life and letters are also considered part of English literature. For other Ish and
Scottish authors, see Irish Literature; Scottish Literature. For other literatures in English, see Arican
Literature; Australian Literature; Canadian Literature.
Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, Era
This period extends from about 450 to 1066, the year of the Norman-French conquest of England. The
Germanic tribes from the Continent who overran England in the 5th century, after the Roman
withdrawal, brought with them the Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, language, which is the basis of
Modern English (see English Language). They brought also a specific poetic tradition, the formal
character of which remained surprisingly constant until the termination of their rule by the Norman-rench invaders six centuries later.
Poetry
Much of Old English poetry was probably intended to be chanted, with harp accompaniment, by the
Anglo-Saxon scop, or bard. Often bold and strong, but also mournful and elegiac in spirit, this poet
emphasizes the sorrow and ultimate futility of life and human helplessness before the power of fate.Almost all this poetry is composed without rhyme, in a characteristic line, or verse, of four stress
syllables alternating with an indeterminate number of unstressed ones (see Versification). This linestrikes strangely on ears habituated to the usual modern pattern, in which the rhythmical unit, or ft,
theoretically consists of a constant number (either one or two) of unaccented syllables that always recede or follow any stressed syllable. Another unfamiliar but equally striking feature in the forml
character of Old English poetry is structural alliteration, or the use of syllables beginning with silar
sounds in two or three of the stresses in each line.
All these qualities of form and spirit are exemplified in the epic poem Beowulf, written in the 8th entury. Beginning and ending with the funeral of a great king, and composed against a background of
impending disaster, it describes the exploits of a Scandinavian culture hero, Beowulf, in destroyinghe
monster Grendel, Grendel's mother, and a fire-breathing dragon. In these sequences Beowulf is shown ot only as a glorious hero but as a savior of the people. The Old Germanic virtue of mutual loyalty
between leader and followers is evoked effectively and touchingly in the aged Beowulf's sacrifice ofhis life and in the reproaches heaped on the retainers who desert him in this climactic battle. The xtraordinary artistry with which fragments of other heroic tales are incorporated to illumine the mi
action, and with which the whole plot is reduced to symmetry, has only recently been fully recognize
Another feature of Beowulf is the weakening of the sense of the ultimate power of arbitrary fate. Th
injection of the Christian idea of dependence on a just God is evident. That feature is typical of oer
Old English literature, for almost all of what survives was preserved by monastic copyists. Most of
was actually composed by religious writers after the early conversion of the people from their faithn
the older Germanic divinities.
Sacred legend and story were reduced to verse in poems resembling Beowulf in form. At first such
verse was rendered in the somewhat simple, stark style of the poems of Caedmon, a humble man of the ate 7th century who was described by the historian and theologian Bede as having received the gift f
song from God. Later the same type of subject matter was treated in the more ornate language of
Cynewulf and his school. The best of their productions is probably the passionate "Dream of the
Rood."
In addition to these religious compositions, Old English poets produced a number of more or less
lyrical poems of shorter length, which do not contain specific Christian doctrine and which evoke th
Anglo-Saxon sense of the harshness of circumstance and the sadness of the human lot. "The Wanderer" nd "The Seafarer" are among the most beautiful of this group of Old English poems.
Prose
Prose in Old English is represented by a large number of religious works. The imposing scholarship o
monasteries in northern England in the late 7th century reached its peak in the Latin work Historia cclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People, 731) by Bede. The great
educational effort of Alfred, king of the West Saxons, in the 9th century produced an Old English
translation of this important historical work and of many others, including the Roman philosopher
Anicius Boethius's De Consolatione Philosophiae (The Consolation of Philosophy), a significant work f largely Platonic philosophy easily adaptable to Christian thought. This work has had great influec
on English literature.
Middle English Period
Extending from 1066 to 1485, this period is noted for the extensive influence of French literature o
native English forms and themes. From the Norman-French conquest of England in 1066 until the 14th
century, French largely replaced English in ordinary literary composition, and Latin maintained its le
as the language of learned works. By the 14th century, when English again became the chosen
language of the ruling classes, it had lost much of the Old English inflectional system, had undergo
certain sound changes, and had acquired the characteristic it still possesses of freely taking into e
native stock numbers of foreign words, in this case French and Latin ones. Thus, the various dialectof
Middle English spoken in the 14th century were similar to Modern English and can be read without
great difficulty today.
The Middle English literature of the 14th and 15th centuries is much more diversified than the previs
Old English literature. A variety of French and even Italian elements influenced Middle English
literature, especially in southern England. In addition, different regional styles were maintained, r
literature and learning had not yet been centralized. For these reasons, as well as because of the
vigorous and uneven growth of national life, the Middle English period contains a wealth of literarymonuments not easily classified.
Allegory
In the north and west, poems continued to be written in forms very like the Old English alliterative
four-stress lines. Of these poems, Piers Plowman is the most significant. Now thought to be by Willi
Langland, it is a long, impassioned work in the form of dream visions (a favorite literary device ofhe
day), protesting the plight of the poor, the avarice of the powerful, and the sinfulness of all peop. The
emphasis, however, is placed on a Christian vision of the life of activity, of the life of unity witGod,
and of the synthesis of these two under the rule of a purified church. As such, despite various faul, it
bears comparison with the other great Christian visionary poem, La divina commedia (The Divine
Comedy), by Dante. For both, the watchwords are heavenly love and love operative in this world.
A second and shorter alliterative vision poem, The Pearl, written in northwest England about 1370, i
similarly doctrinal, but its tone is ecstatic, and it is far more deliberately artistic. Apparently elegy for
the death of a small girl (although widely varying religious allegorical interpretations have been
suggested for it), the poem describes the exalted state of childlike innocence in heaven and the neefor
all souls to become as children to enter the pearly gates of the New Jerusalem. The work ends with a
impressive vision of heaven, from which the dreamer awakes. In general, poetry and prose expressing mystical longing for, and union with, the deity is a common feature of the late Middle Ages,
particularly in northern England.
Tales of Chivalry and Adventure
A third alliterative poem, supposedly by the same anonymous author who wrote The Pearl, is Sir
Gawain and the Green Knight (circa 1370), a romance, or tale, of knightly adventure and love, of thegeneral medieval type introduced by the French. Most English romances were drawn, as this one
apparently was, from French sources. Most of these sources are concerned with the knights of King
Arthur (see Arthurian Legend) and seem to go back in turn to Celtic tales of great antiquity. In SirGawain, against a background of chivalric gallantry, the tale is told of the knight's resistance to e
blandishments of another man's beautiful wife.
Chaucer
Two other important, nonalliterative verse romances form part of Geoffrey Chaucer's work. These are he psychologically penetrating Troilus and Criseyde (circa 1385), a tale of the fatal course of a nbe
love, laid in Homeric Troy and based on Il filostrato, a romance by the 14th-century Italian author iovanni Boccaccio; and The Knight's Tale (1382?; later included in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales), als based on Boccaccio. Immersed in court life and charged with various governmental duties that carriedhim as far as Italy, Chaucer yet found time to translate French and Latin works, to write under Fren
influence several secular vision poems of a semiallegorical nature (The Book of the Duchess, The
House of Fame, The Parliament of Fowls, and, above all, to compose The Canterbury Tales (probably
after 1387). This work consists of 24 stories or parts of stories (mostly in verse in almost all themedieval genres) recounted by Chaucer through the mouths and in the several manners of a group of
pilgrims bound for Canterbury Cathedral, representative of most of the classes of medieval England. haracterized by an extraordinary sense of life and fertility of invention, these narratives range fo
The Knight's Tale to sometimes indelicate but remarkable tales of low life, and they concern a host
subjects: religious innocence, married chastity, villainous hypocrisy, female volubility_all illumin by
great humor. With extraordinary artistry the stories are made to characterize their tellers.
Arthurian Legends
In the 15th century a number of poets were obviously influenced by Chaucer, but in general medieval iterary themes and styles were exhausted during this period. Sir Thomas Malory stands out for his
great work, Le morte d'Arthur (The Death of Arthur, 1469-70), which carried on the tradition of
Arthurian romance, from French sources, in English prose of remarkable vividness and vitality. He
loosely tied together stories of various knights of the Round Table, but most memorably of Arthur
himself, of Galahad, and of the guilty love of Lancelot and Arthur's queen, Guinevere. Despite the gat
variety of incident and the complications of plot in his work, the dominant theme is the need to sacfice
individual desire for the sake of national unity and religious salvation, the latter of which is envioned
in terms of the dreamlike but intense mystical symbolism of the Holy Grail.
The Renaissance
A golden age of English literature commenced in 1485 and lasted until 1660. Malory's Le morte
d'Arthur was among the first works to be printed by William Caxton, who introduced the printing
press to England in 1476. From that time on, readership was vastly multiplied. The growth of the
middle class, the continuing development of trade, the new character and thoroughness of education f
laypeople and not only clergy, the centralization of power and of much intellectual life in the courof
the Tudor and Stuart monarchs, and the widening horizons of exploration gave a fundamental new
impetus and direction to literature. The new literature nevertheless did not fully flourish until thlast 20
years of the 1500s, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Literary development in the earlier part the
16th century was weakened by the diversion of intellectual energies to the polemics of the religiousstruggle between the Roman Catholic church and the Church of England, a product of the Reformation.
The English part in the European movement known as humanism also belongs to this time. Humanism
encouraged greater care in the study of the literature of classical antiquity and reformed educationn
such a way as to make literary expression of paramount importance for the cultured person. Literary tyle, in part modeled on that of the ancients, soon became a self-conscious preoccupation of Englis poets and prose writers. Thus, the richness and metaphorical profusion of style at the end of the
century indirectly owed much to the educational force of this movement. The most immediate effect ofhumanism lay, however, in the dissemination of the cultivated, clear, and sensible attitude of its
classically educated adherents, who rejected medieval theological obscurantism and superstition. Of hese writers, Sir Thomas More is the most remarkable. His Latin prose narrative Utopia (1516)
satirizes the irrationality of inherited assumptions about private property and money and follows Plo
in deploring the failure of kings to make use of the wisdom of philosophers. More's book describes adistant nation organized on purely reasonable principles and named Utopia (Greek, "nowhere").
Renaissance Poetry
The poetry of the earlier part of the 16th century is generally less important, with the exception othe
work of John Skelton, which exhibits a curious combination of medieval and Renaissance influences.
The two greatest innovators of the new, rich style of Renaissance poetry in the last quarter of the th
century were Sir Philip Sidney and Edmund Spenser, both humanistically educated Elizabethan
courtiers.
Sidney, universally recognized as the model Renaissance nobleman, outwardly polished as well as
inwardly conscientious, inaugurated the vogue of the sonnet cycle in his Astrophel and Stella (writt
c. 1582; pub. 1591). In this work, in the elaborate and highly metaphorical style of the earlier Itaan
sonnet, he celebrated his idealized love for Penelope Devereux (1562?-1607), the daughter of Walter evereux, 1st earl of Essex. These lyrics profess to see in her an ideal of womanhood that in the
Platonic manner leads to a perception of the good, the true, and the beautiful and consequently the ivine. This idealization of the beloved remained a favored motif in much of the poetry and drama of
the late 16th century; it had its roots not only in Platonism but also in the Platonic speculations
humanism and in the chivalric idealization of love in medieval romance.
The greatest monument to that idealism, broadened to include all features of the moral life, is Spenr's
uncompleted Faerie Queene (pub., with successive additions, 1590-1609), the most famous work of the eriod. In each of its completed six books it depicts the activities of a hero that point toward theieal
form of a particular virtue, and at the same time it looks forward to the marriage of Arthur, who is
combination of all the virtues, and Gloriana, who is the ideal form of womanhood and the embodiment f Queen Elizabeth. It is entirely typical of the impulse of the Renaissance in England that in thiswrk
Spenser tried to create out of the inherited English elements of Arthurian romance and an archaic, ptly
medieval style a noble epic that would make the national literature the equal of those of ancient Grce
and Rome and of Renaissance Italy. His effort in this respect corresponded to the new demands
expressed by Sidney in the critical essay The Defence of Poesie, originally Apologie for Poetrie
(written c. 1583; posthumously pub. 1595). Spenser's conception of his role no doubt conformed to
Sidney's general description of the poet as the inspired voice of God revealing examples of morally erfect actions in an aesthetically ideal world such as mere reality can never provide, and with a
graphic and concrete conviction that mere philosophy can never achieve. The poetic and narrative
qualities of The Faerie Queene suffer to a degree from the various theoretical requirements that Speer
forced the work to meet.
In a number of other lyrical and narrative works Sidney and Spenser displayed the ornate, somewhat
florid, highly figured style characteristic of a great deal of Elizabethan poetic expression; but twother
poetic tendencies became visible toward the end of the 16th and in the early part of the 17th centurs.
The first tendency is exemplified by the poetry of John Donne and the other so-called metaphysical
poets, which carried the metaphorical style to heights of daring complexity and ingenuity. This ofte
paradoxical style was used for a variety of poetic purposes, ranging from complex emotional attitude
to the simple inducement of admiration for its own virtuosity. Among the most important of Donne's
followers, George Herbert is distinguished for his carefully constructed religious lyrics, which stre to
express with personal humility the emotions appropriate to all true Christians. Other members of themetaphysical school are Henry Vaughan, a follower of Herbert, and Richard Crashaw, who was
influenced by Continental Catholic mysticism. Andrew Marvell wrote metaphysical poetry of great
power and fluency, but he also responded to other influences. The involved metaphysical style
remained fashionable until late in the 17th century.
The second late Renaissance poetic tendency was in reaction to the sometimes flamboyant lushness of he Spenserians and to the sometimes tortuous verbal gymnastics of the metaphysical poets. Best
represented by the accomplished poetry of Ben Jonson and his school, it reveals a classically pure a
restrained style that had strong influence on late figures such as Robert Herrick and the other Cavaer
poets and gave the direction for the poetic development of the succeeding neoclassical period.
The last great poet of the English Renaissance was the Puritan writer John Milton, who, having at hi
command a thorough classical education and the benefit of the preceding half century of
experimentation in the various schools of English poetry, approached with greater maturity than
Spenser the task of writing a great English epic. Although he adhered to Sidney's and Spenser's
notions of the inspired role of the poet as the lofty instructor of humanity, he rejected the fantasc and
miscellaneous machinery, involving classical mythology and medieval knighthood, of The Faerie
Queene in favor of the central Christian and biblical tradition. With grand simplicity and poetic por
Milton narrated in Paradise Lost (1667) the machinations of Satan leading to the fall of Adam and Ev
from the state of innocence; and he performed the task in such a way as to "justify the ways of God
man" and to express the central Christian truths of freedom, sin, and redemption as he conceived the
His other poems, such as the elegy Lycidas (1637), Paradise Regain'd (1671), and the classically
patterned tragedy Samson Agonistes (1671), similarly reveal astonishing poetic power and grace underthe control of a profound mind.
Renaissance Drama and Prose
The poetry of the English Renaissance between 1580 and 1660 was the result of a remarkable outburst f energy. It is, however, the drama of roughly the same period that stands highest in popular
estimation. The works of its greatest representative, William Shakespeare, have achieved worldwide
renown. In the previous Middle English period there had been, within the church, a gradual
broadening of dramatic representation of such doctrinally important events as the angel's
announcement of the resurrection to the women at the tomb of Christ. Ultimately, performances of
religious drama had become the province of the craft guilds, and the entire Christian story, from th
creation of the world to the last judgment, had been reenacted for secular audiences. The Renaissanc
drama proper rose from this late medieval base by a number of transitional stages ending about 1580.A large number of comedies, tragedies, and examples of intermediate types were produced for London
theaters between that year and 1642, when the London theaters were closed by order of the Puritan
Parliament. Like so much nondramatic literature of the Renaissance, most of these plays were writtenn
an elaborate verse style and under the influence of classical examples, but the popular taste, to whh
drama was especially susceptible, required a flamboyance and sensationalism largely alien to the spit
of Greek and Roman literature. Only the Roman tragedian Lucius Annaeus Seneca could provide a
model for the earliest popular tragedy of blood and revenge, The Spanish Tragedy (1594) of Thomas
Kyd. Kyd's skillfully managed, complicated, but sensational plot influenced in turn later,
psychologically more sophisticated revenge tragedies, among them Shakespeare's Hamlet. A few years
later Christopher Marlowe, in the tragedies Tamburlaine, Part I (1590), and Edward II (1594), began he tradition of the chronicle play of the fatal deeds of kings and potentates. Marlowe's plays, suc s
Dr. Faustus (1604) and The Jew of Malta (1633), are remarkable primarily for their daring depictionsof world-shattering characters who strive to go beyond the normal human limitations as the Christianmedieval ethos had conceived them; these works are written in a poetic style worthy in many ways of omparison to Shakespeare's.
Shakespeare
Elizabethan tragedy and comedy alike reached their true flowering in Shakespeare's works. Beyond
his art, his rich style, and his complex plots, all of which surpass by far the work of other Elizabhan
dramatists in the same field, and beyond his unrivaled projection of character, Shakespeare's
compassionate understanding of the human lot has perpetuated his greatness and made him the
representative figure of English literature for the whole world. His comedies, of which perhaps the st
are As You Like It (circa 1599) and Twelfth Night (c. 1600), depict the endearing as well as the
ridiculous sides of human nature. His great tragedies_Hamlet (c. 1601), Othello (c. 1604), King Learc.
1605), Macbeth (c. 1606), and Antony and Cleopatra (c. 1606)_look deeply into the springs of action n the human soul. His earlier dark tragedies were imitated in style and feeling by the tragedian Jon
Webster in The White Devil (1612) and The Duchess of Malfi (1613-14). In Shakespeare's last plays,
the so-called dramatic romances, including The Tempest (c. 1611), he sets a mood of quiet acceptanceand ultimate reconciliation that was a fitting close for his literary career. These plays, by virtuef their
mysterious, exotic atmosphere and their quick, surprising alternations of bad and good fortune, comeclose also to the tone of the drama of the succeeding age.
Late Renaissance and 17th Century
The most influential figure in shaping the immediate future course of English drama was Ben Jonson. is carefully plotted comedies, satirizing with inimitable verve and imagination various departures fom the norm of good sense and moderation, are written in a more sober and careful style than are
those of most Elizabethan and early 17th-century dramatists. Those qualities, indeed, define the
character of most later Restoration comedy. The best of Jonson's comedies are Volpone (1606) and
The Alchemist (1610). Professing themselves his disciples, the dramatists Francis Beaumont and John letcher collaborated on a number of so-called tragicomedies (for example, Philaster, c. 1610) in whc
morally dubious situations, surprising reversals of fortune, and sentimentality combine with hollow hetoric.
The outstanding prose works of the Renaissance are not so numerous as those of later ages, but the
great translation of the Bible, called the King James Bible, or Authorized Version, published in 161 is
significant because it was the culmination of two centuries of effort to produce the best English
translation of the original texts, and also because its vocabulary, imagery, and rhythms have influeed
writers of English in all lands ever since. Similarly sonorous and stately is the prose of Sir Thoma
Browne, the physician and semiscientific investigator. His reduction of worldly phenomena to symbolsof mystical truth is best seen in Religio Medici (Religion of a Doctor), probably written in 1635.
The Restoration Period and the 18th Century
This period extends from 1660, the year Charles II was restored to the throne, until about 1789. Theprevailing characteristic of the literature of the Renaissance had been its reliance on poetic inspition or
what today might be called imagination. The inspired conceptions of Marlowe, Shakespeare, and
Milton, the true originality of Spenser, and the daring poetic style of Donne all support this
generalization. Furthermore, although nearly all these poets had been far more bound by formal and
stylistic conventions than modern poets are, they had developed a large variety of forms and of richr
exuberant styles into which individual poetic expression might fit. In the succeeding period, howeve
writers reacted against both the imaginative flights and the ornate or startling styles and forms ofhe
previous era. The quality of the later age is suggested by its writers' admiration for Ben Jonson anhis
disciples; the transparent and apparently effortless poetic medium of the "school of Ben," along witits
emphasis on good taste, moderation, and the Greek and Latin classics as models, appealed profoundly o the new generation.
Thus, the restoration of Charles II ushered in a literature characterized by reason, moderation, goo
taste, deft management, and simplicity. The historical parallel between the early imperialism of Rom
and the restored English monarchy, both of which had replaced republican institutions, was not lost
the ruling and learned classes. Their appreciation of the literature of the time of the Roman empero
Augustus led to a widespread acceptance of the new English literature and encouraged a grandeur of
tone in the poetry of the period, the later phase of which is often referred to as Augustan. In addion,
the ideals of impartial investigation and scientific experimentation promulgated by the newly founde
Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge established 1662) were influential in the
development of clear and simple prose as an instrument of rational communication.
Finally, the great philosophical and political treatises of the time emphasize rationalism. Even in e
earlier 17th century Francis Bacon had moved in this direction with his advocacy of inductive
reasoning and scientific investigation in Advancement of Learning (1605) and The New Atlantis
(1627). John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) is the product of a belief in
experience as the exclusive basis of knowledge, a view pushed to its logical extreme in An Enquiry
Concerning Human Understanding (1748) of David Hume. Locke himself continued to profess faith in
divine revelation, but this residual belief was weakened among the similarly rationalist Deists, whotended to base religion on what reason could find in the world God had created around humans. In
political thought, the arbitrary acceptance of the monarch's divine right to rule (a conception popur in
the Renaissance) had so nearly succumbed to skeptical criticism that Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan 1651) found it necessary to defend the idea of political absolutism with a rationally conceived
sanction. According to him, the monarch should rule not by divine right but by an original and
indissoluble social contract in order to secure universal peace and material gratification. Similarl
rationalistic, but opposed to this rigorous subordination of all organs of the state to central contl,
were Locke's two Treatises on Government (1690), in which he stated that the authority of the
governor is derived from the always revocable consent of the governed and that the people's welfare
the only proper object of that authority. Perhaps the greatest historical work in English is Edward ibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (6 vol., 1776-88). Notable for its
stately, balanced style, it is permeated with rationalistic skepticism and distrust of emotion, partularly
religious emotion.
The successive stages of literary taste during the period of the Restoration and the 18th century ar
conveniently referred to as the ages of Dryden, Pope, and Johnson, after the three great literary fires
who, one after another, carried on the so-called classical tradition in literature. The age as a who is
sometimes called the Augustan age, or the classical or neoclassical period.
Age of Dryden
The poetry of John Dryden possesses a grandeur, force, and fullness of tone that were eagerly receiv
by readers still having something in common with the Elizabethans. At the same time, however, his
poetry set the tone of the new age in achieving a new clarity and in establishing a self-limiting,
somewhat impersonal canon of moderation and good taste. His polished heroic couplet (a unit of two
rhyming lines of iambic pentameter, generally end-stopped), which he inherited from less
accomplished predecessors and then developed, became the dominant form in the composition of
longer poems. In a number of critical works Dryden defined the stylistic restraint, compression, claty,
and common sense that he exemplified in his own poetry and that he showed to be lacking in much of
the poetry of the preceding age, particularly in the exuberant and mechanically complex metaphoricalwit of the older metaphysical school. His reputation rests primarily on satire. This form became thedominant poetic genre of the age, both because of the religious and political factionalism of the tis
and because mocking denunciation of the ludicrousness or rascality of the opposition comes naturallyto an age with so strong a public sense of norms of behavior. Absalom and Achitophel (1681-82) and
Mac Flecknoe (1682) are the most remarkable of Dryden's political satires. Among his other poetic
works are noteworthy translations of Roman satirists and of the works of Vergil, and the Pindaric od
"Alexander's Feast," a tour de force of varied cadences, which was published in 1697.
The bulk of Dryden's work was in drama. By means of it, following the new mode of living of the
professional literary man, he could derive his support from a large public rather than from private atrons. In his heroic tragedies The Conquest of Granada (1670) and All for Love; or, The World Well
Lost (1678), a rewriting of Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra in the new taste, Dryden showed a
different and not always satisfying side of his talent and exemplified the dominant quality of all
Restoration tragedy. In order to achieve splendor and surprise on the stage, he sacrificed reality o
characterization and consistency in motivation for sensual display in exotic locales and extravagancin
plot and situation, presented in a style verging on the bombastic. The affinities of this kind of dra are
with Beaumont and Fletcher rather than with the great Elizabethan age; and the indirect influence ofBen Jonson is apparent also, for these two men were Jonson's disciples. Probably the best example ofthis genre of tragedy was produced by Thomas Otway, whose Venice Preserved (1682) avoids the
worst excesses to which this form is liable and also possesses considerable tenderness and sensibili.
By this time, however, the vogue of heroic tragedy was coming to an end; the style already had been uccessfully parodied in The Rehearsal (1671), by George Villiers, 2d duke of Buckingham, and his
collaborators.
The comedy of the time is much more successful than the tragedy. It is derived directly from the
comedies of Ben Jonson but tries for more refinement while displaying less strength. In a cool, satic
spirit, it destructively criticizes middle-class ambition and other variations from the courtly soci norm,
of which the canons are aristocratic good taste and good sense, rarely conventional morality. In theeyes of succeeding generations, the chief defects of Restoration comedy are its reduction of sentime
and emotion to silliness and its frequent amorality. Reaction against this type of comedy, known as e
comedy of manners, already had developed by the time that its greatest practitioner, William Congrev
was displaying his subtle artistry in Love For Love (1695) and The Way of the World (1700).
Just as Dryden's poetry defined the tone of his time, so too did his easy, informal, clear prose sty,
notably in his Essay of Dramatic Poesie (1668) and in various prefaces to his plays and translations
Noteworthy prose of a rather different nature was produced by two other figures of the age, Samuel
Pepys and John Bunyan. The appetite of the period for life at all levels, but particularly for the le of
the senses, is suggested by the secret diary of Samuel Pepys, a high official of the Admiralty Offic
This extraordinary work, valuable as it is as a document of contemporary taste, has much to say of t
private, unheroic life and longings of people of all times. A figure in stronger contrast to Pepys cld
hardly be imagined than John Bunyan, a Puritan preacher, completely alien to the aristocratic and
professional world of letters. Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which Is o Come (1st part published in 1678; 2nd part, 1684) and The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680),
two rough-hewn, moving, allegorical narratives of the human journey at the level of the fundamental erities of life, death, and religion. The first of these is now a literary classic, but in spite ofte
penetrating characterization and vitality of both works, they initially attained popularity only amo
artisans, merchants, and the poor.
Age of Pope
In the age of Alexander Pope (dated from about the death of Dryden in 1700 to Pope's death in 1744),the classical spirit in English literature reached its highest point, and at the same time other fors
became manifest. Dryden's poetry had achieved grandeur, amplitude, and sublimity within a particulardefinition of good taste and good sense and under the tutelage of the Roman and Greek classics. To t
poetry of Pope this characterization applies even more stringently. More than any other English poet
he submitted himself to the requirement that the expressive force of poetic genius should issue fort
only in a formulation as reasonable, lucid, balanced, compressed, final, and perfect as the power ofhuman reason can make it. Pope did not have Dryden's majesty. Perhaps, given his predilection for
correctness of detail, he could not have had it. Also, the readers of succeeding times have conclude
that the dictates of reason do not all converge on only one poetic formula, just as the heroic coupl,
which Pope brought to final perfection, is not necessarily the most generally suitable of English poic
forms. Nevertheless, the ease, harmony, and grace of Pope's poetic line are still impressive, and hi
quality of precise but never labored expression of thought remains unequaled.
Pope's reputation rests in large part on his satires, but his didactic bent led him to formulate in rse the
Essay on Criticism (1711) and The Essay on Man (1732-34). The former attempts to show that poetry
must be modeled on nature; but his conception of nature, a traditional one shared by all his
contemporaries, differs from that of succeeding generations. For Pope, nature meant the rules that rht
reason has discovered to be immanent in all things, so that what the experience of reasonable minds hrough the ages has shown to be the greatest poetry, namely, that of classical antiquity, provides perfect model for modern times. A similar conservatism reappears in the Essay on Man, which
concludes with the much debated generalization that "Whatever is, is right."
Pope's brilliant satiric masterpiece, The Rape of the Lock (1712; revised ed. 1714), makes an epic
theme of a trifling drawing-room episode: the contention arising from a young lord's having covertlysnipped a lock of hair from a young lady's head. His most sustained satire, The Dunciad (1728; finalversion 1743), follows Dryden's Mac Flecknoe in its elegantly pointed, often malicious but always
high-spirited mockery of the literary dullards who were Pope's enemies.
Like Dryden, Pope made translations of classical works, notably of the Iliad, which was a great
popular and financial success. His edition of Shakespeare's works bears witness to a range of taste t
usually ascribed to him.
It is only natural that the 18th-century preoccupation with the power of reason and good sense shoul
have produced a large number of works in the more sober medium of prose. Jonathan Swift, who was,
like Pope, a Tory conservative for the latter half of his life and a satirist, wrote a number of morntly
satirical prose narratives in which a profound and despairing perception of human stupidities and ev
are in contrast with the social criticism of his great contemporaries. Swift's Tale of a Tub (1704) educes the quarrels among three important religious divisions of his day to an allegory of three
disreputable brothers. His generous anger on behalf of the poor of Ireland produced A Modest
Proposal (1729), in which, with horrifying mock seriousness, he proposed that the children of the po
should be raised for slaughter as food for the rich. His best-known work, Gulliver's Travels (1726),purports to be a ship doctor's account of his voyages into strange places, but in reality it is a caigation
of the human race. The accounts of Gulliver's first two voyages are often read as a children's book.The last part abandons, however, delicate fancy and unmasks the selfish and sick bestiality of humany
in the guise of the so-called Yahoos, who are the savage and improvident servants of a race of
apparently reasonable and noble horses, called Houyhnhnms. This work, like all of Swift's, is writte
in a prose of unrivaled lucidity, energy, and polemical skill.
Similarly noteworthy for the quality of their prose are the Spectator papers (1711-12; 1714), writte
mainly by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. Published daily, these essays, like many others,
corresponded to the newly felt need of the day for popular journalism, but their enlightened commentand their criticism of contemporary society separate them from the mass of similar publications. Themain intent of Addison and Steele may be defined in their own words: "To enliven morality with wit, nd to temper wit with morality." In a series of informal, conversational essays describing the actiiies
of various ideal representatives of social groups, such as the Tory country squire Sir Roger de
Coverley and the Whig merchant Sir Andrew Freeport, they salvaged and united some of the best sides f the contemporary English character. The lightly borne, free-and-easy manners of the court and the
older landed classes should, according to these papers, exist side by side with the industry,
uprightness, and deeply felt morality of the newly rich city merchants. The amorality associated wit
the one and the stubborn narrowness of the other should disappear. The emphasis on public decorum
and individual rectitude and on sympathy with one's fellow beings in the Spectator papers is a measu
of their distance from the cool indifference and frequent licentiousness of much Restoration literate,
particularly comedy, although the purpose of both was to represent reason, moderation, and common
sense.
A quite different kind of journalism is represented by the work of the middle-class adventurer, hackwriter, and political agent Daniel Defoe. Separated from the life of the upper classes and their erute
writers, as Bunyan had been before him, he produced, among many pieces of hackwork, a series of
purportedly true but actually fictitious memoirs and confessions. The first of these, and the greate, is
Robinson Crusoe (1719), which reports the life and adventures of a shipwrecked sailor.
Age of Johnson
The age of Samuel Johnson, from 1744 to about 1784, was a time of changing literary ideals. The
developed classicism and literary conservatism associated with Johnson fought a rear-guard action
against the cult of sentiment and feeling associated in various ways with the harbingers of the comi
age of romanticism. Johnson composed poetry that continued the traditions and forms of Pope, but he s best known as a prose writer and as an extraordinarily gifted conversationalist and literary arbie in
the cultivated urban life of his time. His conservatism and sturdy common sense are what might be
expected given his intellectual tradition, but his individual quality has little to do with literarytendencies. His curiously lovable and upright personality, along with his intellectual preeminence a
idiosyncrasies, have been preserved in the most famous of English biographies, the Life of Samuel
Johnson (1791) by James Boswell, a Scottish writer with an appetite for literary celebrities. Johnso
worked his way up from poverty by honest literary labors, among which was his Dictionary of the
English Language (1755). A great success, it was the first such work prepared according to modern
standards of lexicography. Like Addison and Steele, Johnson produced a series of journalistic essays
The Rambler (1750-52), but because of their somewhat pedantic style and Latinate vocabulary, they
lack the easy informality of the Spectator papers and serve to accentuate the opposition between hisneoclassical formality and the succeeding romantic ideal of heart-to-heart communication. Johnson's hilosophical tale Rasselas (1759), of which the moral is that "human life is everywhere a state in wich much is to be endured, and little to be enjoyed," is reminiscent of Swift (as well as of his
contemporary the French writer Voltaire in his tale Candide) in its perception of the vanity of huma
wishes. For all his pessimism, however, the amazing detail, independence, and intellectual facility
Johnson's critical biographies of English poets since 1600 (Lives of the Poets, 1779-81), written inis
old age, show what critical discrimination and intellectual integrity can accomplish.
Johnson's friend Oliver Goldsmith was a curious mixture of the old and the new. His novel The Vicar f Wakefield (1766) begins with dry humor but passes quickly into tearful calamity. His poem The
Deserted Village (1770) is in form reminiscent of Pope, but in the tenderness of its sympathy for th
lower classes it foreshadows the romantic age. In such plays as She Stoops to Conquer (1773)
Goldsmith, like the younger Richard Sheridan in his School for Scandal (1777), demonstrated an oldertradition of satirical quality and artistic adroitness that was to be anathema to a younger generati.
The signs of this newer feeling, which resulted in romanticism, can be traced in the poetry of Willi
Cowper and of Thomas Gray. The cultivation of a pensive and melancholy sensibility and the
interruption of the rule of the heroic couplet, as in Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard"(1751), hint at the period to come, as does Gray's interest in medieval, nonclassical literature. Ne
interests are even more obvious in the highly original poetry of the self-educated artist and engrav
William Blake. His work consists in part of simple, almost childlike lyrics (Songs of Innocence, 178,
as well as of powerful but lengthy and obscure declarations of a new mythological vision of life (Th
Book of Thel, 1789). All Blake's poetry expresses a revolt against the ideal of reason (which he
considered destructive to life) and advocates the life of feeling_but in a more vital and assertive nse
than is the case with the other previously mentioned preromantics. Similarly robust and passionate a
the lyrics of the Scottish poet Robert Burns, which are characterized by his use of regional Scottis
vernacular. The simplicity, forcefulness, and powerful emotion of the ancient ballads of the Scottis
English border region, as revealed in Bishop Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry
(1765), were likewise influential in the development of romanticism.
Among writers of the novel_a newly popular form in this period_an advocate of sentiment and simple, nnocent feelings had already appeared in the person of Samuel Richardson. In his sentimental novel Carissa (1747-48), the plight of a young, innocent girl, destroyed by the man she loves, is represete
through lengthy letters interchanged among the characters. This device permits an unprecedented
revelation of motives and feelings. Richardson's contemporary Henry Fielding evinced his connection ith the earlier satirical spirit in his novel Joseph Andrews (1742), which parodies Richardson's ote
novel of virtue besieged, Pamela (1740). Fielding's greatest novel, Tom Jones (1749), reveals a robu
and healthy spirit of good sense and comedy, in which well-intentioned vigor wins out over excessivehypocrisy. Fielding's contemporary, the Scottish-born Tobias Smollett, wrote a number of novels of
picaresque adventure, the last and probably best of which is Humphry Clinker (1771). Tristram
Shandy (1759-67), the masterpiece of another great British novelist of the century, Laurence Sterne,indulges in the new cult of sentiment, but by reason of its cast of eccentric characters and the skied
weaving of the most extraordinary behavior into the depiction of their personalities, this novel lie
outside the usual historical categories.
The Romantic Age
Extending from about 1789 until 1837, the romantic age stressed emotion over reason. One objective
of the French Revolution was to destroy an older tradition that had come to seem artificial, and to sert
the liberty, spirit, and heartfelt unity of the human race. To many writers of the romantic age thisobjective seemed equally appropriate in the field of English letters. In addition, the romantic age
English literature was characterized by the subordination of reason to intuition and passion, the cu of
nature much as the word is now understood and not as Pope understood it, the primacy of the
individual will over social norms of behavior, the preference for the illusion of immediate experien
as opposed to generalized and typical experience, and the interest in what is distant in time and ple.
The Romantic Poets
The first important expression of romanticism was in the Lyrical Ballads (1798) of William
Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, young men who were aroused to creative activity by the
French Revolution; later they became disillusioned with what followed it. The poems of Wordsworth
in this volume treat ordinary subjects with a new freshness that imparts a certain radiance to them.n
the other hand, Coleridge's main contribution, "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," masterfully create
an illusion of reality in relating strange, exotic, or obviously unreal events. These two directionscharacterize most of the later works of the two poets. For Wordsworth the great theme remained the
world of simple, natural things, in the countryside or among people. He reproduced this world with s
close and understanding an eye as to add a hitherto unperceived glory to it. His representation of
human nature is similarly simple but revealing. It is at its best, as in "Tintern Abbey" or "Ode on ntimations of Immortality," when he speaks of the mystical kinship between quiet nature and the
human soul and of the spiritual refreshment yielded by humanity's sympathetic contact with the rest
God's creation. Not only is the immediacy of experience in the poetry of Wordsworth opposed to
neoclassical notions, but also his poetic style constitutes a rejection of the immediate poetic past
Wordsworth condemned the idea of a specifically poetic language, such as that of neoclassical poetry
and he strove instead for what he considered the more powerful effects of ordinary, everyday
language. Coleridge's natural bent, on the other hand, was toward the strange, the exotic, and the
mysterious. Unlike Wordsworth, he wrote few poems, and these during a very brief period. In such
poems as "Kubla Khan" and "Christabel," the beauties and horrors of the far distant in time or placere
evoked in a style that is neither neoclassical nor simple in Wordsworth's fashion, but that, instead
recalls the splendor and extravagance of the Elizabethans. At the same time Coleridge achieved an
immediacy of sensation that suggests the natural although hidden affinity between him and
Wordsworth, and their common rejection of the 18th-century spirit in poetry.
Another poet who found delight in the far distant in time was Sir Walter Scott, who, after evincing
early interest in the ancient ballads of his native Scotland, wrote a series of narrative poems glorying
the active virtues of the simple, vigorous life and culture of his land in the Middle Ages, before ihad
been affected by modern civilization. In such of these poems as The Lady of the Lake (1810) he
employed a style of little originality. His work, however, was the more popular among his immediate ontemporaries for that very reason, long before the full stature of Wordsworth's more impressive
poetry was recognized. Some of Scott's Waverley novels, a series of historical works, have given hima more permanent reputation as a writer of prose.
A second generation of romantic poets remained revolutionary in some sense throughout their poetic
careers, unlike Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Scott. George Gordon, Lord Byron, is one of the
exemplars of a personality in tragic revolt against society. As in his stormy personal life, so alson such
poems as Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812) and Don Juan (1819-24), this generous but egotistical
aristocrat revealed with uneven pathos or with striking irony and cynicism the vagrant feelings and ctions of great souls caught in a petty world. Byron's satirical spirit and strong sense of social elism
kept him apart from other English romantics; unlike the rest, he proclaimed, for example, a high regd
for Pope, whom he sometimes imitated.
The other great poet-revolutionary of the time, Percy Bysshe Shelley, seems much closer to the grand
serious spirit of the other romantics. His most thoughtful poetry expresses his two main ideas, thathe
external tyranny of rulers, customs, or superstitions is the main enemy, and that inherent human
goodness will, sooner or later, eliminate evil from the world and usher in an eternal reign of
transcendant love. It is, perhaps, in Prometheus Unbound (1820) that these ideas are most completelyexpressed, although Shelley's more obvious poetic qualities_the natural correspondence of metrical
structure to mood, the power of shaping effective abstractions, and his ethereal idealism_can be stued
in a whole range of poems, from "Ode to the West Wind" and "To a Skylark" to the elegy "Adonais,"
written for John Keats, the youngest of the great romantics.
More than that of any of the other romantics, Keats's poetry is a response to sensuous impressions.
found neither the time nor the inclination to elaborate a complete moral or social philosophy in hispoetry. In such poems as "The Eve of St. Agnes," "Ode on a Grecian Urn," and "Ode to a Nightingale,"all written about 1819, he showed an unrivaled awareness of immediate sensation and an unequaled
ability to reproduce it. Between 1818 and 1821, during the last few years of his short life, this
spiritually robust, active, and wonderfully receptive writer produced all his poetry. His work had amore profound influence than that of any other romantic in widening the sensuous realm of poetry forthe Victorians later in the century.
Romantic Prose
Certain romantic prose parallels the poetry of the period in a number of ways. The evolution of
fundamentally new critical principles in literature is the main achievement of Coleridge's Biographi
literaria (1817), but like Charles Lamb (Specimens of English Dramatic Poets, 1808) and William
Hazlitt (Characters of Shakespeare's Plays, 1817), Coleridge also wrote a large amount of practical riticism, much of which helped to elevate the reputations of Renaissance dramatists and poets
neglected in the 18th century. Lamb is famous also for his occasional essays, the Essays of Elia (18,
1833). An influential romantic experiment in the achievement of a rich poetic quality in prose is th
phantasmagoric, impassioned autobiography of Thomas de Quincy, Confessions of an English Opium-
Eater (1821).
The Victorian Era
The Victorian era, from the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1837 until her death in 1901, was an eraf
several unsettling social developments that forced writers more than ever before to take positions o
the immediate issues animating the rest of society. Thus, although romantic forms of expression in
poetry and prose continued to dominate English literature throughout much of the century, the attentn
of many writers was directed, sometimes passionately, to such issues as the growth of English
democracy, the education of the masses, the progress of industrial enterprise and the consequent risof
a materialistic philosophy, and the plight of the newly industrialized worker. In addition, the unseling
of religious belief by new advances in science, particularly the theory of evolution and the historil
study of the Bible, drew other writers away from the immemorial subjects of literature into
considerations of problems of faith and truth.
Nonfiction
The historian Thomas Babington Macaulay, in his History of England (5 vol., 1848-61) and even more
in his Critical and Historical Essays (1843), expressed the complacency of the English middle classe
over their new prosperity and growing political power. The clarity and balance of Macaulay's style, hich reflects his practical familiarity with parliamentary debate, stands in contrast to the sensitvty
and beauty of the prose of John Henry Newman. Newman's main effort, unlike Macaulay's, was to
draw people away from the materialism and skepticism of the age back to a purified Christian faith. s
most famous work, Apologia pro vita sua (Apology for His Life, 1864), describes with psychological
subtlety and charm the basis of his religious opinions and the reasons for his change from the Anglin
to the Roman Catholic church.
Similarly alienated by the materialism and commercialism of the period, Thomas Carlyle, another of t
great Victorians, advanced a heroic philosophy of work, courage, and the cultivation of the godlike
human beings, by means of which life might recover its true worth and nobility. This view, borrowed n part from German idealist philosophy, Carlyle expressed in a vehement, idiosyncratic style in suc works as Sartor resartus (The Tailor Retailored, 1833-34) and On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the
Heroic in History (1841).
Other answers to social problems were presented by two fine Victorian prose writers of a different
stamp. The social criticism of the art critic John Ruskin looked to the curing of the ills of industal
society and capitalism as the only path to beauty and vitality in the national life. The escape fromocial
problems into aesthetic hedonism was the contribution of the Oxford scholar Walter Pater.
Poetry
The three notable poets of the Victorian age became similarly absorbed in social issues. Beginning aa
poet of pure romantic escapism, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, soon moved on to problems of religious faith,social change, and political power, as in "Locksley Hall," the elegy In Memoriam (1850), and The
Idylls of the King (1859). All the characteristic moods of his poetry, from brooding splendor to lyral
sweetness, are expressed with smooth technical mastery. His style, as well as his peculiarly Englishconservatism, stands in some contrast to the intellectuality and bracing harshness of Robert Brownins
poetry. Browning's most important short poems are collected in Dramatic Romances and Lyrics (1841-
46) and Men and Women (1855). Matthew Arnold, the third of these mid-Victorian poets, stands apart
from them as a more subtle and balanced thinker; his literary criticism (Essays in Criticism, 1865, 88)
is the most remarkable written in Victorian times. His poetry displays a sorrowful, disillusioned
pessimism over the human plight in rapidly changing times (for example, "Dover Beach," 1867), a
pessimism countered, however, by a strong sense of duty. Among a number of lesser poets, Algernon
Charles Swinburne showed an escapist aestheticism, somewhat similar to Pater's, in sensuous verse
rich in verbal music but somewhat diffuse and pallid in its expression of emotion. The poets Dante
Gabriel Rossetti and William Morris were associated with the Pre-Raphaelite movement, the adherents f which hoped to inaugurate a new period of honest craft and spiritual truth in property and paintig
Despite the otherworldly or archaic character of their romantic poetry, Morris, at least, found a soal
purpose in his designs for household objects, which profoundly influenced contemporary taste.
The Victorian Novel
The novel gradually became the dominant form in literature during the Victorian . A fairly constant ccompaniment of this development was the yielding of romanticism to literary realism, the accurate oservation of individual problems and social relationships. The close observation of a restricted scil
milieu in the novels of Jane Austen early in the century (Pride and Prejudice, 1812; Emma, 1816) hadbeen a harbinger of what was to come. The romantic historical novels of Sir Walter Scott, about the ame time (Ivanhoe, 1820), typified, however, the spirit against which the realists later were to rec. It
was only in the Victorian novelists Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray that the new
spirit of realism came to the fore. Dickens's novels of contemporary life (Oliver Twist, 1837-39; Dad
Copperfield, 1849-50; Great Expectations, 1861; Our Mutual Friend, 1865) exhibit an astonishing
ability to create living characters; his graphic exposures of social evils and his powers of caricate and
humor have won him a vast readership. Thackeray, on the other hand, indulged less in the
sentimentality sometimes found in Dickens's works. He was also capable of greater subtlety of
characterization, as his Vanity Fair (1847-48) shows. Nevertheless, the restriction of concern in
Thackeray's novels to middle- and upper-class life, and his lesser creative power, render him secondo
Dickens in many readers' minds.
Other important figures in the mainstream of the Victorian novel were notable for a variety of reaso.
Anthony Trollope was distinguished for his gently ironic surveys of English ecclesiastical and polital
circles; Emily Bront?, for her penetrating study of passionate character; George Eliot, for her
responsible idealism; George Meredith, for a sophisticated, detached, and ironical view of human
nature; and Thomas Hardy, for a profoundly pessimistic sense of human subjection to fate and
circumstance.
A second and younger group of novelists, many of whom continued their important work into the 20th
century, displayed two new tendencies. Robert Louis Stevenson, Rudyard Kipling, and Joseph Conrad
tried in various ways to restore the spirit of romance to the novel, in part by a choice of exotic lale,
in part by articulating their themes through plots of adventure and action. Kipling attained fame al for
his verse and for his mastery of the single, concentrated effect in the short story. Another tendenc in a
sense an intensification of realism, was common to Arnold Bennett, John Galsworthy, and H. G. Wells.These novelists attempted to represent the life of their time with great accuracy and in a critical,artly
propagandistic spirit. Wells's novels, for example, often seem to be sociological investigations of e
ills of modern civilization rather than self-contained stories.
19th-Century Drama
The same spirit of social criticism inspired the plays of the Irish-born George Bernard Shaw, who di
more than anyone else to awaken the drama from its 19th-century somnolence. In a series of powerful lays that made use of the latest economic and sociological theories, he exposed with enormous
satirical skill the sickness and fatuities of individuals and societies in England and the rest of t
modern world. Man and Superman (1903), Androcles and the Lion (1913), Heartbreak House (1919),
and Back to Methuselah (1921) are notable among his works. His final prescription for a cure, a
philosophy of creative evolution by which human beings should in time surpass the biological limit o
species, showed him going beyond the limits of sociological realism into visionary writing.
20th-Century Literature
Two world wars, an intervening economic depression of great severity, and the austerity of life in
Great Britain following the second of these wars help to explain the quality and direction of Englis
literature in the 20th century. The traditional values of Western civilization, which the Victoriansad
only begun to question, came to be questioned seriously by a number of new writers, who saw society reaking down around them. Traditional literary forms were often discarded, and new ones succeeded
one another with bewildering rapidity, as writers sought fresher ways of expressing what they took t
be new kinds of experience, or experience seen in new ways.
Post-World War I Fiction
Among novelists and short-story writers, Aldous Huxley best expressed the sense of disillusionment
and hopelessness in the post-World War I period in his Point Counter Point (1928). This novel is
composed in such a way that the events of the plot form a contrapuntal pattern that is a departure fm
the straightforward storytelling technique of the realistic novel.
Before Huxley, and indeed before the war, the sensitively written novels of E. M. Forster (A Room
with a View, 1908; Howards End, 1910) had exposed the hollowness and deadness of both abstract
intellectuality and upper-class social life. Forster had called for a return to a simple, intuitive liance on
the senses and for a satisfaction of the needs of one's physical being. His most famous novel, A
Passage to India (1924), combines these themes with an examination of the social distance separatingthe English ruling classes from the native inhabitants of India and shows the impossibility of contied
British rule there.
D. H. Lawrence similarly related his sense of the need for a return from the complexities,
overintellectualism, and cold materialism of modern life to the primitive, unconscious springs of vility
of the race. His numerous novels and short stories, among which some of the best known are Sons and overs (1913), Women in Love (1921), The Plumed Serpent (1926), and Lady Chatterley's Lover
(1928), are for the most part more clearly experimental than Forster's. The obvious symbolism of
Lawrence's plots and the forceful, straightforward preaching of his message broke the bonds of
realism and replaced them with the direct projection of the author's own dynamically creative spirit
His distinguished but uneven poetry similarly deserted the fixed forms of the past to achieve a free
more natural, and more direct expression of the perceptions of the writer.
Even more experimental and unorthodox than Lawrence's novels were those of the Irish writer James
Joyce. In his novel Ulysses (1922) he focused on the events of a single day and related them to one nother in thematic patterns based on Greek mythology. In Finnegans Wake (1939) Joyce went
beyond this to create a whole new vocabulary of puns and portmanteau words from the elements of
many languages and to devise a simple domestic narrative from the interwoven parts of many myths
and traditions. In some of these experiments his novels were paralleled by those of Virginia Woolf, hose Mrs. Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927) skillfully imitated, by the so-called stream
of-consciousness technique, the complex of immediate, evanescent life experienced from moment to
moment. Dame Ivy Compton-Burnett appeals to a small but discerning readership with her
idiosyncratic dissections of family relationships, told almost entirely in sparse dialogue; her nove
include Brothers and Sisters (1929), Men and Wives (1931), and Two Worlds and Their Ways
(1949).
Among young novelists, Evelyn Waugh, like Aldous Huxley, satirized the foibles of society in the
1920s in Decline and Fall (1928). His later novels, similarly satirical and extravagant, showed a
deepening moral tone, as in The Loved One (1948) and Brideshead Revisited (1945). Graham Greene,
like Waugh a convert to Roman Catholicism, investigated in his more serious novels the problem of
evil in human life (The Heart of the Matter, 1948; A Burnt-Out Case, 1961; The Comedians, 1966).
Much of George Orwell's fame rests on two works of fiction, one an allegory (Animal Farm, 1945), theother a mordant satire (Nineteen Eighty-Four, 1949)_both directed against the dangers of
totalitarianism. The same anguished concern about the fate of society is at the heart of his nonfictn,
especially in such vivid reporting as The Road to Wigan Pier (1937), an account of life in the coal-ining regions of northern England during the Great Depression, and in Homage to Catalonia (1938),
about the Spanish civil war.
Fiction after World War II
No clearly definable trends have appeared in English fiction since the time of the post-World War IIschool of writers, the so-called angry young men of the 1950s and '60s. This group, which included
the novelists Kingsley Amis, John Wain (1925- ), and John Braine (1922-86), attacked outmoded
social values left over from the prewar world. Interest in the 1970s focused on writers as disparaten
their concerns and styles as V. S. Pritchett (1900- ) and Doris Lessing. Pritchett, considered a masr of
the short story (Selected Stories, 1978), is also noted as a literary critic of remarkable eruditionHis
easy but elegant, supple style illuminates both forms of writing. Lessing has moved from the early
short stories collected as African Stories (1965) to novels increasingly experimental in form and
concerned with the role of women in contemporary society. Notable among these is The Golden
Notebook (1962), about a woman writer coming to grips with life through her art.
Anthony Powell, a friend and Oxford classmate of Evelyn Waugh, has also written wittily about the
higher echelons of English society, but with more affection and on a broader canvas. His 12-volume
series of novels, grouped under the title A Dance to the Music of Time (1951-75), is a highly readab
account of the intertwined lives and careers of people in the arts and politics from before World WaII
to many years afterward. His 4-volume autobiography, To Keep the Ball Rolling (1977-83),
complements the fictionalized details that form the basis of his novels. Iris Murdoch, a teacher of hilosophy as well as a writer, is esteemed for slyly comic analyses of contemporary lives in her may
novels beginning with Under the Net (1954) and continuing with A Severed Head (1961), The Black
Prince (1973), Nuns and Soldiers (1980), and The Good Apprentice (1986). Her effects are made by
the contrast between her eccentric characters and the underlying seriousness of her ideas.
Other distinctive talents include Anthony Burgess (1917- ), novelist and man of letters, most popula
for his mordant novel of teenage violence, A Clockwork Orange (1962), which was made into a
successful film in 1971; and John Le Carr? (pseud. of David Cornwell; 1931- ), who has won
popularity for ingeniously complex espionage tales, loosely based on his own experience in the Briti
foreign service. His novels include The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (1963), Tinker, Tailor,
Soldier, Spy (1974), A Perfect Spy (1986), The Russia House (1989), and The Night Manager (1993).
William Golding (1911-93) displays a wide inventive range in fiction that explores human evil: the
allegorical Lord of the Flies (1954); The Inheritors (1955), about Neanderthal life; The Spire (1964
and The Paper Men (1984), about an English novelist's cruel behavior to an American scholar. Goldingwon the Nobel Prize for literature in 1983.
Modern Poetry
Two of the most remarkable poets of the modern period combined tradition and experiment in their
work. The Irish writer William Butler Yeats was the more traditional. In his romantic poetry, writte
before the turn of the century, he exploited ancient Irish traditions and then gradually developed apowerfully honest, profound, and rich poetic idiom, at its maturity in The Tower (1928) and The
Winding Stair (1933). The younger poet, T. S. Eliot, born in America, achieved more immediate
acclaim with The Waste Land (1922), the most famous poem of the early part of the century. Through
a mass of symbolic associations with legendary and historical events, Eliot expresses his despair ov
the sterility of modern life. His movement toward religious faith displayed itself in Four Quartets 1943). His surprising combination of colloquial and literary diction, his fusing of antithetical mod,
and his startling, complex metaphorical juxtapositions relate him, among English poets, to John Donn
Eliot's style was intimately influenced by his study of such French poets as Jules Laforgue and Sain
John Perse. Eliot's essays, promulgating a style of poetry in which sound and sense are associated, ere probably the most influential work in literary criticism in the first half of the century.
Both Yeats and Eliot exercised enormous influence on modern poets. A third influence was that of
Gerard Manley Hopkins, a Victorian poet whose work was not introduced to the world until 1918. The
conflict between his Roman Catholicism and his sense of the beauty of this world, and his complicate
experiments in metrics and vocabulary have attracted much attention.
Of the many poets stimulated to indignant verse by World War I, Siegfried Sassoon, Wilfred Owen,
and Robert Graves rank among the most lastingly important. Graves's ability to produce pure and
classically perfect poetry kept his reputation strong long after World War II. His historical novelssuch
as I, Claudius and Claudius the God (both 1934), also helped to maintain his popularity. The verse o
Dame Edith Sitwell, who communicated her disdain of commonplace propriety as much by the
aristocratic individualism of her personal attitudes as by her poetry, was first published during Wod
War I; her experimentalism had little directly to do, however, with social problems. Extravagantly
imaginative metaphors after the manner of the metaphysical poets, and conscious distortion of sense mpressions, somewhat as in modern painting, were among her poetic devices. After World War II she
wrote more compassionate and moving poetry, as in The Canticle of the Sun (1949) and The Outcasts
(1962).
The succeeding generation of poets, identified in the popular consciousness with the depression and ocial upheaval of the 1930s, made use at first of so much private or esoteric symbolism as to rende the poetry barely intelligible to any but a small coterie of readers. The best known of these_W. H. uden, Stephen Spender, and C. Day Lewis_filled their earlier poetry with political and ideological dscussion and with expressions of horror at bourgeois society and nascent totalitarianism. After suh verse plays as The Ascent of F-6, written in 1936 in collaboration with Christopher Isherwood,
Auden's poetry became more reflective in The Double Man (1941) and, later, City Without Walls
(1969). So, too, Day Lewis moved from The Magnetic Mountain (1935) to a more personal lyricism in
World Above All (1943). His Poetic Image (1947) was a prose exposition of the modern poetic ideal.
The position of poet laureate, held by Day Lewis from 1968 to 1972, subsequently passed to Sir John etjeman, popular for his nostalgic humor.
Experimentalism continued in the exuberantly metaphorical poetry of the Welsh writer Dylan Thomas,
whose almost mystical love of life and understanding of death were expressed in some of the most
beautiful verse of the middle of the century. After Thomas's death in 1953, a new generation of Brith
poets emerged, some influenced by him and some reacting against his influence. Among the leading
younger poets were D. J. Enright (1920- ), Philip Larkin (1922-85), John Wain, Thom Gunn (1929- ),
and Ted Hughes (1930- ). In 1984, after Betjeman's death, Hughes, whose poetry focuses on the
savagery of animal life, became poet laureate.
Modern Drama
Aside from the later plays of George Bernard Shaw, the most important drama produced in English in
the first quarter of the 20th century came from another Irish writer, Sean O'Casey, who continued th
movement known as the Irish Renaissance. Other playwrights of the period were James Matthew
Barrie, John Galsworthy, Somerset Maugham, and Sir Noel Coward. Beginning in the 1950s the so-
called angry young men became a new, salient force in English drama. The dramatists John Osborne,
Arnold Wesker (1932- ), Shelagh Delaney (1939- ), and John Arden (1930- ) focused their attention onthe working classes, portraying the drabness, mediocrity, and injustice in the lives of these people
Although Harold Pinter and the Irish writer Brendan Behan also wrote plays set in a working-class
environment, they stand apart from the angry young men. In such works as The Birthday Party (1957)
Pinter seems to offer reasonable interpretations of his characters' behavior, only to withdraw the
interpretations or set them slightly askew in an effort to keep the audience intent on every least ht in
the action on stage. Outside the literary mainstream was the Irish-born novelist-dramatist Samuel
Beckett, recipient in 1969 of the Nobel Prize for literature. Long a resident in France, he wrote hi
laconic, ambiguously symbolic works in French and translated them himself into English (Waiting for odot, play, 1952; How It Is, novel, 1964).
Both English and American audiences have enthusiastically received the plays of Joe Orton (1933-67) nd Tom Stoppard (1937- ). Orton's Entertaining Mr. Sloane (1964), Loot (1967), and What the Butler Sw (1969) are farces dealing with the perverseness of modern morality; dazzling verbal ingenuity
distinguishes Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (1966), Travesties (1974), and The
Real Thing (1984).
See also Drama; separate articles on literary forms and movements. For additional information on
individual writers, see biographies of those whose names are not followed by dates.
Contributed by: A. Kent Hieatt
Bibliographic entries: B817, B823, B829, B835, B836, B837, B838, B839.
"English Literature," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright ©1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation
Devil, in later Hebrew and in Christian belief, the supreme spirit of evil, who for immeasurable timhas
ruled over a kingdom of evil spirits and is in constant opposition to God. The word is derived, via e
ecclesiastical Latin diabolus, from the Greek diabolos, an adjective meaning `slanderous," used alson
ancient Greek as a noun to identify a person as a slanderer. The term was used in the Greek translatn
of the Bible, the Septuagint, not to refer to human beings, but rather to translate the Hebrew ha-san
("the satan"), an expression originally used as the title of a member of the divine court who functied
as God's roving spy, gathering intelligence about human beings from his travels on earth. Because
aspects of this heavenly figure were probably drawn from experience with agents of ancient Middle
Eastern royal secret services, it is not surprising that the satan should also be seen as a charactewho
attempts to provoke punishable sedition where he finds none, thus acting as an adversary of human
beings, bent on separating them from God. In all speculation about the satan, the major problem bein
addressed is that of the origin and nature of evil.
In later Jewish tradition, and thus also in early Christian thought, the title becomes a proper nameSatan
begins to be seen as an adversary not only of human beings but also_and even primarily_of God. This evelopment is probably a result of the influence of Persian dualistic philosophy, with its opposing
powers of good (Ormazd) and evil (Ahriman). But in both Jewish and Christian systems, the dualism isalways provisional or temporary, the devil being ultimately subject to God. In the writings of the
Qumran sect the devil emerges as Belial, the Spirit of Wickedness (see Dead Sea Scrolls).
In some strains of rabbinic thought, Satan is linked with the "evil impulse," which is thus personifd to
some degree. This personification is a Jewish form of the widespread and ancient assumption that
human beings can be subjected to malevolent forces distinct from their conscious minds. Thus, both i
Judaism and in Christianity the belief is found that human beings can be "possessed" by the devil ory
his subordinates, the demons.
Perhaps the core of Christian teaching about the devil is that Jesus Christ came to break the grip hand
his demons have on the whole of humanity (the "possession" of some is a symptom of the general
domination of all), and that in the crucifixion the devil and his henchmen, working their worst, wer
doomed, paradoxically, to ultimate defeat.
In the Middle Ages the devil played important roles in art and in folklore, being almost always seens
an evil, impulsive animal-human with a tail and horns, sometimes accompanied by subordinate devils. he thought that the latter could take up residence in human beings served more frequently to
differentiate the possessed from the normal than to indicate something about the state of all humani.
The complexity, mystery, and corporate nature of evil have caused some thinkers to believe that a ple
must be found for the devil even in modern thought.
See also Demon; Satanism.
Contributed by: J. Louis Martyn
Bibliographic entry: B73.
"Devil," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright © 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright © 1993 Funk & agnall's Corporation
Wasn't that pleasant? Hahahaha! The next info?mercial is downloaded straight off the New
Dork Sublime BBS in SF...(415)864?3675. I'll admit, Black Sabbath was pretty forward in it's
own "interpretation of the Bible..." but the Beatles? Turn Me On Dead Man...
readthis...hahahhaha
THE SATANIC ROOTS OF ROCK
by Donald Phau
Today, at almost any "heavy-metal'' rock concert one can hear the
audience being exhorted to rape and murder in the name of Satan.
Lyrics such as the following are typical:
"We come bursting through your bodies
Rape your helpless soul
Transform you into a creature
Merciless and cold
We force you to kill your brother
Eat his blood and brain
Shredding flesh and sucking bone
Till everyone's insane
We are pestilent and contaminate
The world Demonic legions prevail''
Any loving parent today would be horrified and shocked to learn
that their sons and daughters are eagerly listening to such evil.
Perhaps though, some may think privately, "If only we could return to
the 'good old days,' with the music of the Beatles.'' Little do most
people suspect that it was with those innocent-looking Beatles, that
most of the trouble started.
Modern electronic-rock music, inaugurated in the early 1960s, is,
and always has been, a joint enterprise of British military
intelligence and Satanic cults. On the one side, the Satanists control
the major rock groups through drugs, sex, threats of violence, and
even murder. On the otherside, publicity, tours, and recordings are
financed by record companies connected to British military
intelligence circles. Both sides are intimately entwined with the
biggest business in the world, the international drug trade.
The so-called "rock stars'' are pathetic puppets caught in a much
larger scheme. From the moment they receive their first recording
royalties, the groups are heavily immersed in drugs. For example,
much-admired "stars'' such as John Lennon of the Beatles and Keith
Richard of the Rolling Stones, were heroin addicts. Richard had to
obtain blood transfusions, replacing his entire heroin-laced blood
supply, in order to get a visa to enter the United States.
The "rock stars'' are also totally artificial media creations.
Their public image, as well as their music, is fabricated from behind
the scenes by controllers. For example, when the Beatles first arrived
in the United States in 1964, they were mobbed at the airport by
hundreds of screaming teenage girls. The national press immediately
announced that "Beatlemania'' had besieged the U.S.A. But the girls
had all been transported from a girl's school in the Bronx, and paid
for their screaming performance by the Beatles' promoters.
The money of the 1960s rock groups, which in somes cases mounted to
hundreds of millions of dollars, was also totally under the control of
mob-connected promoters. From 1963 to 1970, the Rolling Stones made
over $200 million, yet the group's members were all nearly bankrupt.
None of them had any idea of where their money went.
Between 1963 and 1964 the Beatles and the Rolling Stones laid siege
to Western European and American culture. This two-pronged invasion
from England was well-planned and well-timed. America had just
suffered the shock of the assassination of President John Kennedy,
while in the streets the mass-based civil rights movement had just
held a Washington, D.C. rally, led by Martin Luther King, of 500,000
people. The rock counterculture would be used as a weapon to destroy
such political movements.
Later in 1968 and 1969, years which saw a mass strike of students
and workers in the United States and Europe, huge, open-air rock
concerts were used to head off the growing discontent of the
population. The rock concerts were devised as a means for mass
recruitment to the drug-saturated, free-sex counterculture. For the
millions who came to these concerts, thousands of tablets of the
hallucinogenic drug, LSD, were made freely avaliable. These drugs were
secretly placed in drinks such as Coca-Cola, turning thousands of
unsuspecting victims into raving psychotics. Many committed suicide.
Less than a half century ago, our young children studied violin and
piano, learning about the great classical composers such as Bach,
Mozart, and Beethoven. As will be shown, the same record companies who
today promote Satanic "heavy-metal'' rock have run covert operations
to destroy the musical heritage of these great classical composers.
For the past thirty years, Western society has been under the gun
of a deliberate plan of cultural warfare, with the purpose of
eliminating Judeo-Christian civilization as we know it. These plans
must not succeed. So that the reader can better combat this evil,
we'll go back nearly thirty years, when those four innocent lads from
Liverpool, England, the Beatles, were just starting out.
Creating the Beatles
The Beatles first began performing in the late 1950s in jazz clubs
in England and West Germany. These clubs, always located in the
seediest part of the cities, served as a marketplace for prostitution
and the circulation of drugs. Beatle biographer Philip Norman writes:
"Their only regular engagement was a strip club. The club owner paid
them ten shillings each to strum their guitars while a stripper named
Janice grimly shed her clothes before an audience of sailors, guilty
businessmen and habitues with raincoat- covered laps.''
The Beatles got their first big break in Germany, in August 1960,
when they obtained a booking at a jazz club in Hamburg's notorious
Reeperbahn district. Describing the area Norman writes it had,
"red-lit windows containing whores in every type of fancy dress, all
ages from nymphet to granny...Everything was free. Everything was
easy. The sex was easy... Here it came after you.''
Far from the picture of innocence, the Beatles, even in their first
performances, were always high on a drug called Preludin, "John
(Lennon), would be foaming at the mouth, he'd have so many pills
inside him...John, began to go berserk on stage, prancing and
groveling...The fact that the audience could not understand a word he
said, provoked John into cries of `Sieg Heil!' and `Fucking Nazis' to
which the audience invariably responded by laughing and clapping.''
Off the stage, the Beatles were just as evil. Norman continues,
"while in Hamburg, John, each Sunday would stand on the balcony,
taunting the churchgoers as they walked to St. Joseph's. He attached
a water-filled contraceptive to an effigy of Jesus and hung it out for
the churchgoers to see. Once he urinated on the heads of three
nuns.''
While in Hamburg, in June of 1962 the Beatles received a telegram
from their manager, a homosexual named Brian Epstein, who was back in
England. "Congratulations,'' Epstein's message read. "EMI requests a
recording session.'' EMI was one of Europe's largest record producers,
and their role in promoting the Beatles would be key in the future.
Under the the strict guidance of EMI's recording director George
Martin, and Brian Epstein, the Beatles were scrubbed, washed, and
their hair styled into the Beatles cut. EMI's Martin created the
Beatles in his recording studio.
Martin was a trained classical musician, and had studied the oboe
and piano at the London School of Music. The Beatles could neither
read music nor play any instrument other than guitar. For Martin, the
Beatles musicianship was a bad joke. On their first hit record, "Love
Me Do,'' Martin replaced Ringo on the drums with a studio musician.
Martin said Ringo, "couldn't do a [drum] roll to save his life.''
>From then on, Martin would take the simple little tunes the Beatles
would come to him with, and turn them into hit records.
Lockwood and EMI
EMI, led by aristocrat Sir Joseph Lockwood, stands for Electrical
and Mechanical Instruments, and is one of Britain's largest producers
of military electronics. Martin was director of EMI's subsidiary,
Parlophone. By the mid-sixties EMI, now called Thorn EMI, created a
music divison which had grown to 74,321 employees and had annual sales
of $3.19 billion.
EMI was also a key member of Britain's military intelligence
establishment.
After the war, in 1945, EMI's European production head Walter Legge
virtually took over control of classical music recordings, signing up
dozens of starving German classical musicians and singers to EMI
contracts. Musicians who sought to preserve the performance tradition
of Beethoven and Brahms, were relegated to obscurity while "ex-Nazi''
Party members were promoted. Legge signed and recorded Nazi member,
the late Herbert Von Karajan, promoting him to superstar status, while
great conductors such as Wilhelm Furtwangler were ignored.
From the beginning, EMI created the myth of the Beatles' great
popularity. In August of 1963, at their first major television
appearance at the London Palladium, thousands of their fans supposedly
rioted. The next day every mass-circulation newspaper in Great Britain
carried a front page picture and story stating, "Police fought to hold
back 1,000 squealing teenagers.'' Yet, the picture displayed in each
newspaper was cropped so closely that only three or four of the
"squealing teenagers'' could be seen. The story was a fraud. According
to a photographer on the scene, "There were no riots. I was there. We
saw eight girls, even less than eight.''
In February 1964, the Beatles myth hit the United States, complete
with the orchestrated riots at Kennedy Airport, previously mentioned.
To launch their first tour, the media created one of the largest mass
audiences in history. For an unprecedented two Sundays in a row, on
the <Ed Sullivan Show>, over 75 million Americans watched the Beatles
shake their heads and sway their bodies in a ritual which was soon to
be replicated by hundreds of future rock groups.
On returning to England, the Beatles were rewarded by the British
aristocracy they served so well . In October 1965, the four were
inducted into the Order of Chivalry, and were personally awarded the
accolade of Member of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth at
Buckingham palace.
Up from the Dregs:
The Rolling Stones
The credit for the origination of today's blatantly Satanic "heavy
metal rock,'' goes to the English group, the Rolling Stones. Their
rise to fame was closely connected with that of the Beatles.
The Stones, as they were called, were widely characterized as the
counterparts to the Beatles. "The Stones'' were "mean,'' "dirty'' and
"rebellious,'' whereas the Beatles were the well-groomed "Fab Four.''
Though seemingly competitors, they were merely two sides of the same
operation. The Stones' first hit record was actually written by the
Beatles, and it was Beatle member George Harrison who set up the
arrangements for their first recording contract.
Following the same game plan as the Beatles, in the spring of 1963
the Rolling Stones appeared on one of England's most popular family
television shows, <Thank Your Lucky Stars.> Only this time, the
reaction by the middle-aged viewers was quite different from that to
the Beatles. Hundreds of angry letters were sent, with a typical
letter stating "It is disgraceful that long-haired louts such as these
should be allowed to appear on television. Their appearance was
absolutely disgusting.''
The program, however, had exactly the planned effect. Rolling
Stones' manager Andrew Oldham was elated at the response. He told the
group, "We're going to make you exactly opposite to those nice, clean,
tidy Beatles. And the more the parents hate you, the more the kids
will love you. Just wait and see.''
In 1964, the Rolling Stones appeared on the <Ed Sullivan Show>, as
the Beatles had done earlier. This time though, the coast-to-coast
audience beheld the spectacle of the television studio being ripped to
shreds by Stones fans. Sullivan said on the air afterward, "I promise
you, they will never be back on our show.'' The publicity, however,
was exactly what was wanted. Within a few months, the group's records
were selling millions of copies.
The plan was now to use both the Beatles and the Rolling Stones as
the means to transform an entire generation into heathen followers of
the New Age, followers which could mold into the future cadre of a
Satanic movement and then deploy into our schools, law enforcment
agencies and political leadership.
Enter Satan
In his book, <The Ultimate Evil,> investigator-author Maury Terry
writes that between 1966 and 1967, the Satanic cult, the Process
Church, "sought to recruit the Rolling Stones and the Beatles.''
During this period, Terry reports that a photo of Rolling Stones
leader Mick Jagger's longtime girlfriend, Marianne Faithfull, appeared
in an issue of <The Process Magazine>. The picture shows her supine,
as if dead, clutching a rose. Terry's book goes on to implicate the
Process Church cult in the Charles Manson and Son of Sam multiple
murders. It was the former lawyer for the Process Church, John
Markham, who recently ran the frameup trial against Lyndon LaRouche.
A key link between the Rolling Stones and the Process Church is
Kenneth Anger, a follower of the "founding father'' of modern
Satanism, Aleister Crowley. Anger, born in 1930, and a child Hollywood
movie star, became a devoted disciple of Crowley.
Crowley was born in 1875 and was called the "Great Beast.'' He was
known to practice ritual child sacrifice regularly, in his role as
Satan's high priest or "Magus.'' Crowley died in 1947 due to
complications of his huge heroin addiction. Before dying, he succeeded
in establishing Satanic covens in many U.S. cities including
Hollywood. Anger, like Crowley, is a Magus, and appears to be the heir
to Crowley.
Anger was seventeen years old when Crowley died. In that same year,
1947, Anger was already producing and directing films which, even by
today's standards, reek of pure evil.
During 1966-1967, when the Process Church is reported to be
recruiting in London, Anger was also on the scene. Author Tony Sanchez
describes that Rolling Stones' Mick Jagger and Keith Richard, and
their girlfriends Marianne Faithfull and Anita Pallenburg, "listened
spellbound as Anger turned them on to Crowley's powers and ideas.''
While in England, Anger worked on a film dedicated to Aleister
Crowley, called <Lucifer Rising>. The film brought together the
Process Church, the Manson Family cult, and the Rolling Stones. The
music for the film was composed by Mick Jagger. Process Church
follower Marianne Faithfull went all the way to Egypt to participate
in the film's depiction of a Black Mass. The part of Lucifer was
played by a guitarist of a California rock group, Bobby Beausoleil.
Beausoleil was a member of the Manson Family, and Anger's homosexual
lover.
A few months after filming under Anger's direction in England,
Beausoleil returned to California to commit the first of the Manson
Family's series of gruesome murders. Beausoleil was later arrested and
is now serving a life sentence in prison along with Manson. Having
lost his star performer, Anger then asked Mick Jagger to play Lucifer.
He finally settled upon Anton La Vey, author of <The Satanic Bible>
and head of the First Church of Satan, to play the part. The film was
released in 1969 with the title <Invocation To My Demon Brother.>
In London, Anger had succeeded in recruiting to Satanism the
girlfriend of one of the Rolling Stones, Anita Pallenberg. Pallenberg
had met the Rolling Stones in 1965. She immediately began sexual
relations with three out of the five members of the group.
Anger, commenting on Anita, said, "I believe that Anita is, for
want of a better word, a witch...The occult unit within the Stones was
Keith and Anita...and Brian. You see, Brian was a witch too.''
One of the group's friends, Tony Sanchez, writes of Pallenberg in
his book, <Up and Down with the Rolling Stones>, "She was obsessed
with black magic and began to carry a string of garlic with her
everywhere--even to bed--to ward off vampires. She also had a strange
mysterious old shaker for holy water which she used for some of her
rituals. Her ceremonies became increasingly secret, and she warned me
never to interrupt her when she was working on a spell.''
He continues, "In her bedroom she kept a huge, ornate carved chest,
which she guarded so jealously that I assumed it was her drug stash.
The house was empty one day, and I decided to take a peep inside. The
drawers were filled with scraps of bone, wrinkled skin and fur from
some strange animals.''
In 1980, the seventeen-year-old caretaker of Keith Richard's New
England estate was found shot to death in Anita Pallenberg's bed. The
death, ruled a suicide, was with Pallenberg's gun. Richard's house was
located near the East Coast headquarters of the Process Church.
According to an article in the English newspaper <Midnite>, a
Connecticut police officer, Michael Passaro, who had responed to the
"suicide'' reported "strange singing'' from the woods a quarter mile
from the Richard's mansion.
The newpaper continues, "There have been several bizarre satanic
rituals in the area over the past five years. A local reporter
attributed the outbreak of occultism to 'rich people taking Acid.'|''
In 1967, reflecting their ongoing association with Anger and the
Process Church, the Rolling Stones released their first rock album
openly celebrating the Devil, titled, "Their Satanic Majesties
Request.'' A few months earlier, the Beatles had released their first
album dedicated to the promotion of psychedelic drugs, "Sargeant
Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.'' The album contained a fantasized
version of an LSD trip, called "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds,'' or
L.S.D. for short. It became a top seller.
Clearly, the Beatles' album was dedicated to Satanist Aleister
Crowley. It was released 20 years, nearly to the day, after Crowley's
death in 1947, and its title song began with the lyrics, "It was
twenty years ago today...'' The album's cover featured a picture of
Crowley.
One month after the album's release, the Beatles shocked the world
by announcing, publicly, that they were regularly taking LSD. Beatle
member Paul McCartney, in an interview with <Life> magazine said, "LSD
opened my eyes. We only use one-tenth of our brain.'' They also
publicly called for the legalization of marijuana.
The cat was now out of the bag, but the protests were few and
minor. In England, the BBC banned "A Day in the Life,'' and in the
U.S.A., Maryland Governor Spiro T.Agnew, who would later be
watergated, launched a campaign to ban "Lucy in the Sky With
Diamonds.''
Creating the Counterculture
The year 1967 marked a significant escalation in open cultural
warfare against the youth of the United States. The year saw the
beginning of mass, open-air rock concerts. In the two years which
followed, over 4 million young people attended a series of nearly a
dozen of these "festivals,'' becoming the victims of planned,
wide-scale drug experimentation. Mind destroying hallucinogenic drugs
such as PCP, STP, and the Beatles-promoted LSD, were freely
distributed at these concerts. These millions of attendees would
afterward return to their homes to become the messengers and promoters
of the new drug culture, or what came to be called the "New Age.''
The first rock festival, "The First Annual Monterey International
Pop Festival,'' was attended by over 100,000 youngsters. The real
purpose of Monterey Pop was the widespread distrubution of a new type
of drugs, classified as psychedelics or hallucinogens, such as LSD. At
Monterey, thousands of younger teen-agers were introduced to the new
hallucinogenic drugs.
The first experimentation with LSD was begun in the early sixties,
in the Haight-Ashbury section of San Francisco. The project was run by
a joint CIA-British intelligence task force under the code-name
MK-Ultra. Part of the project called for the free distribution of
5,000 tablets of LSD through a commune known as Ken Kesey's Merry
Pranksters. LSD's after-effects were then closely studied.
Kesey, a so-called "poet'' and convicted drug felon, became famous
for driving around California in a painted- up bus with his commune,
the Merry Pranksters, distributing LSD-laced Kool Aid to the
unsuspecting.
The effect of LSD is to make the victim psychotic, along with the
inability to discern reality from drug-induced hallucinations. For
many, this psychosis (also called a "bad trip") could and did lead to
suicide. When an individual is given LSD without his knowledge, the
psychosis-producing capabilities of the drug are amplified, and
usually leave the victim with permanent brain damage.
The organizer of the Monterey festival was John Phillips, a member
of the rock group the Mommas and the Papas. Phillips, as we shall
see, was a drug pusher and closely tied in with the network of
Satanists around Charles Manson and director Roman Polanski.
Phillips appointed a board of directors to promote and finance the
concert. The members of the board brought together a network of
British intelligence operatives and Satanists. The board of directors
included Andrew Oldham (the Rolling Stones manager), the Stones leader
Mick Jagger, Beatle Paul McCartney and Phillips' friend, record
producer Terry Melcher, the son of Doris Day.
The concert, including the staging and the huge innovative outdoor
amplification, was run by Phillips. It was the first time that an
American audience was exposed to such openly demonic British groups as
The Who, and Jimi Hendrix. At the conclusion of their act, The Who, in
a drug-crazed frenzy, destroyed all their guitars, amplifiers, and
drums. Hendrix simulated masturbation with his guitar, on stage, while
performing at ear-splitting volume levels.
There was massive, open use of drugs. Author Robert Santelli, in
his book, <Aquarius Rising,> writes "LSD was in abundance at Monterey.
Tabs of `Monterey Purple' were literally given to anyone wishing to
experiment a little.'' The police made no arrests, setting another
precedent for future outdoor concerts.
There was a larger scheme in operation. The scheme was tied into
MK-Ultra and it involved using Satanists around Phillips, along with
agents such as Ken Kesey and Timothy Leary. The plan was to turn
nearby San Francisco into a Satanist gaming preserve, mass recruiting
and perverting young run-away teenagers.
Phillips had earlier written the music to a song called "San
Francisco'' which sold over 5 million copies. The song called for
youth throughout the country to come to San Francisco "with flowers in
their hair.'' The song was a rallying cry to tens of thousands who
came flooding into San Francisco in the summer of 1968 to join the new
"hippie'' movement, misnamed the Summer of Love. Some who came became
the prey for the likes of Charles Manson, who recruited his
cult-"family" exclusively from runaway youth.
Manson and the Rock Stars
Charles Manson has been portrayed as a lone psychotic who had
hypnotic power over his "Family". In reality, Manson was well-known to
a whole network of Hollywood actors, actresses, promoters, partners
and rock stars, and was providing sex and drugs to many of them.
In his autobiography, <Papa John,> Phillips tells of an invitation
he received to join Terry Melcher and Beach Boy member Dennis Wilson,
at Wilson's mansion. Wilson said, "This guy Charlie's here with all
these great-looking chicks. He plays guitar and he's a real wild guy.
He has all these chicks hanging out like servants. You can come over
and just screw any of them you want. It's a great party.''
Manson's entire "Family'' moved into the Beach Boys' mansion for
nearly a year. The Beach Boys, who have performed at the White House,
are the top recording group of EMI's subsidiary, Capitol Records.
On Sunday, August 10, 1969, Manson sent four members of his cult
for their last visit to Melcher's house. This time Melcher wasn't
there, but the actress Sharon Tate, wife of movie director Roman
Polanski, and three others, were. When the group left, Tate and the
others had been savagely mutilated and murdered. As for Phillips, in
June 1980, he was arrested for running a large-scale drug wholesaling
operation.
The Age of Aquarius
The largest concert after Monterey Pop, the "Woodstock Music and
Art Fair,'' would be what <Time> magazine celebrated as an "Aquarian
Festival'' and "history's largest happening.'' The term "Aquarian''
was carefully chosen. The Aquarian age signified that the "Age of
Pisces,'' which is the age of Christ, had come to an end.
At Woodstock, a small town in upstate New York, nearly half a
million youth gathered to be drugged and brainwashed on a farm. The
victims were isolated, immersed in filth, pumped with psychedelic
drugs, and kept awake continously for three straight days, and all
with the full complicity of the FBI and government officials.
Security for the concert was provided by a hippie commune trained in
the mass distribution of LSD.
Once again, it would be the networks of British military
intelligence which would be the initiators. Woodstock was the brain
child of Artie Kornfeld, the director of EMI's Capitol Record's,
Contemporary Projects Division. The original funding was provided by
the heir of a large Pennsylvania-based pharmaceutical company, John
Roberts, and two other partners. It was another pharmaceutical
company, the Swiss-based Sandoz Laboratories, which had first
synthesized LSD. Roberts would later be accused of using his company
for the mass drugging of the attendees.
Little adequate preparations were made for the nearly half a
million people who came. Joel Rosenman, one of the three partners,
writes, as the concert neared, "Food and water were clearly going to
be in short supply, sanitary facilities overtaxed, tempers short,
drugs overabundant. Worst of all, there was no way for anyone who
wanted to, to leave.'' Sitting in your own excrement was actually part
of the plan, as John Roberts jokingly wrote, "We're going to hand out
bananas at the gate to bind our patrons.''
A hippie commune called the Hog Farm, had a special role at
Woodstock. The Hog Farm was led by a man nicknamed Wavy Graver, who
was a former member of Ken Kesey's MK-Ultra operation, the Merry
Pranksters. Communes like the Hog Farm were commonly found in the
remote parts of California and served as the breeding grounds for
Satanic cults, as well as terrorist groups. Members of these communes
continually interchanged with other communes and were the recruiting
grounds for the Process Church and Manson. Hog Farm member Diane Lake
was a member of Charles Manson's Family, at the time of the massacre
of Sharon Tate and her guests.
On August 14, one day before the scheduled opening, the entire
festival security force, comprised of 350 off-duty New York City cops,
pulled out. A spokesman for the New York police claimed that no
official arrangement was ever made with the city, a claim the
promoters vehemently denied. In an August 15, 1969 <New York Times>
article, the head of Woodstock's security said, "Now I don't have any
security at all. I've been struck. We're having the biggest collection
of kids there's ever been in this country without any police
protection.'' Not surprisingly, the Hog Farm was put in charge of
security.
Woodstock funder and director John Roberts, openly admitted that he
was well aware of the Hog Farm's connection to drug distribution. He
writes, "their fee was simply transportation to and from the
festival... a peace-keeping force that looked, talked, and smelled
like the crowd would be both highly credible and highly effective...
and the most important, they were wise in the ways of drugs, knowing
good acid from bad, good trips from bummers, good medicine from
poison, etc.''
The Hog Farm at the time was living in New Mexico's mountains.
Roberts chartered a Boeing 727, at a cost of $17,000, and flew 100 of
them to New York.
To clear the final path for the planned drugging of half a million
youngsters, the district attorney for the area agreed privately that
there would be no arrests or prosecutions for violations of drug laws.
John Roberts writes, "The District Attorney...recognized early on that
many of our customers would be using illegal drugs, but also
recognized that such use would be the least of our problems over the
course of the weekend. He acted, therefore, with compassion and good
grace throughout.'' Roberts also writes that he was meeting
continuously with the FBI up to and including one day before the start
of the concert, and had their full cooperation.
The Experiment Begins
Two days before the scheduled start of the concert, 50,000 kids had
already arrived in Woodstock. Drugs immediately began to circulate.
Many people brought their babies and, as Roberts says, even they were
drugged. Roberts writes that at a nearby lake, "the tots swam naked,
smoked grass, and got into the music.''
A poll conducted at the festival by the <New York Times> showed
that 99 percent of those attending were using marijuana. Local sheriff
deputies, totally overwhelmed, reported that no arrests were being
made for drug use. The <New York Times> of August 17 quoted one
deputy,'' If we did (make arrests), there isn't enough space in
Sullivan or the next three counties to put them in.''
The use of marijuana was not the worst. Following the design of the
original MK-Ultra project, the mass distribution of LSD came next,
much of it in LSD-laced Coca Cola, as Kesey's Pranksters had done five
years earlier. Roberts jokingly relates the following, "a
particularly abrasive cop ....had been handed an LSD-spiked Coke while
directing traffic. Long after all automobiles in the area had
congealed to a standstill, the hardhat was still out on the road
waving them on. Finally they led him away.''
For the next three days, the nearly half a million young people
that arrived were subjected to continual drugs and rock music. Because
of torrential rains, they were forced to wallow in knee-deep mud.
There were no shelters, and no way to get out. Cars were parked over
eight miles away. Rosenman writes that the key to the "Woodstock
experiment'' was "keeping our performers performing around the
clock...to keep the kids transfixed...''
Within the first 24 hours, over 300 kids reported to medical
authorities, violently ill. The diagnosis: they were having "bad'' LSD
trips. Thousands more would follow. On August 17, the <New York Times>
reported: "Tonight, a festival announcer warned from the stage, that
'badly manufactured acid' (a term for LSD) was being circulated. He
said: 'You aren't taking poison acid. The acid's not poison. It's just
badly manufactured acid. You are not going to die.... So if you think
you've taken poison, you haven't. But if you're worried, just take
half a tablet.'|''
The advice, to nearly 500,000 people, "just take half a tablet''
was given by none other than MK-Ultra agent Wavy Gravy.
With a growing medical emergency on hand, a call went out to New
York City for emergency medical personnel. Over 50 doctors and nurses
were flown in. By the end of Woodstock, a total of 5,000 medical cases
were reported.
Altamont: the Making
Of a Snuff Film
The last major rock "festival'' of the 1960s was held at Altamont
racetrack, outside San Francisco. The featured performers were the
Rolling Stones, who now reigned supreme in the rock world, since the
Beatles had broken up. The suggestion for the concert came from
MK-Ultra agent Ken Kesey.
This time, the audience was whipped into a frenzy, in open praise
of the Devil. The result was a literal Satanic orgy. At its
conclusion, four people were dead and dozens beaten and injured. Mick
Jagger, the lead singer of the Rolling Stones, played the part of
Lucifer. The performance marked the beginning of the "heavy-metal''
concerts of today.
Over 400,000 people attended the Altamont concert with far less
preparation than even Woodstock. Food, and even water, were nearly
unavailable. But plenty of drugs were to be found. Like Woodstock, the
concert would become the vehicle for the mass experimentation of
drugs, especially LSD. Author Tony Sanchez describes the scene as
people gathered at Altamont:
"By midmorning there were more than a quarter of a million people
milling around, and things were becoming chaotic. There was a lot of
bad acid (LSD-DP) around, and people were freaking out all over the
place. Everybody was getting stoned out of his skull to pass the long
hours before the music was to start--Mexican grass, cheap California
wine, amphetamines ...
"By midday virtually everyone was tripping...A man was almost
killed as he tried to fly from a speedway bridge--another acid case.
On the other side of the site a young guy screamed for help as he fell
into the deep waters of a drainage canal. The stoned-out freaks looked
on bemused as he sank beneath the surface. No one seemed sure if he
had been real or an hallucination. It didn't matter anymore anyway, he
was dead. Elsewhere doctors were kept busy delivering babies to girls
giving hysterical premature birth.''
The descent into Hell would continue. The Rolling Stones had hired,
for a reported $500 worth of free beer, the motorcycle gang Hell's
Angels to act as security guards for the concert. Their real payment,
however, was in drug sales. The Hell's Angels, an outlaw gang made up
of robbers, rapists and murderers, were the known controllers and
sellers of drugs on the entire West Coast.
When the festival did open, the crowd of nearly half a million
people waited for more than one and a half hours for the Stones to
appear. It was only when nightfall arrived, allowing for the use of
special lighting effects, that the group finally came on stage. Mick
Jagger, the lead singer, was dressed in a satin cape, which glowed red
under the lights. Jagger was imitating Lucifer.
Author Sanchez next describes what he calls a preplanned "Satanic
ritual.'' As the group began playing, "strangely several of the kids
were stripping off their clothes and crawling to the stage as if it
were a high altar, there to offer themselves as victims for the boots
and cues of the Angels. The more they were beaten and bloodied, the
more they were impelled, as if by some supernatural force, to offer
themselves as human sacrifices to these agents of Satan.''
Standing in the crowd in front of the stage, with his girlfriend,
was a black man by the name of Meredith Hunter. Hunter would soon be
singled out for human sacrifice.
The Stones had just released a new song entitled, "Sympathy for the
Devil.'' It had quickly become the number one record in the country.
The song begins with Mick Jagger introducing himself as Lucifer. As
soon as he began to sing it at Altamont, the entire audience rose up
and began dancing in a wild frenzy.
Sanchez descibes what happened next, "A great six foot four grizzly
bear of a Hell's Angel had stalked across to Meredith (Hunter) to pull
his hair hard in an effort to provoke a fight ...A fight broke out,
five more Angels came crashing to the aid of their buddy, while
Meredith tried to run off through the packed crowd. An Angel caught
him by the arm and brought down a sheath knife hard in the black man's
back. The knife failed to penetrate deeply, but Meredith knew then
that he was fighting for his life. He ripped a gun out of his pocket
and pointed it straight at the Angel's chest... And then the Angels
were upon him like a pack of wolves. One tore the gun from his hand,
another stabbed him in the face and still another stabbed him
repeatedly, insanely, in the back until his knees buckled.
"When the Angels finished with Hunter, several people tried to come
to his aid, but an Angel stood guard over the motionless body. `Don't
touch him,' he said menacingly. `He's going to die anyway, so just let
him die.'|''
It was never proven that Meredith actually had a gun. Later,
arrests were made. No one was ever indicted because no one person
would step forward as a witness out of fear of retaliation by the
Angels.
Throughout the bloody killing the Rolling Stones continued to play
"Sympathy for the Devil.'' The entire group watched from the stage as
Meredith Hunter was killed right before them. In addition, incredibly,
the entire murder was professionally filmed by a film crew hired to
film the concert. Shortly thereafter the film was released throughout
the country with the title of a Rolling Stone's song, "Gimme
Shelter.''
Was the murder preplanned by Satanists? In his book, <The Ultimate
Evil,> author Maury Terry tells how Satanic cults circulate among
themselves films of their human sacrifices. These films are called
"snuff films.'' Terry relates that one of the seven Son of Sam murders
in New York City was actually filmed from a nearby parked van. The
film was then purchased by a rich Satanist.
"Gimme Shelter,'' which was a box-office hit, can still be
purchased or rented today for only a few dollars, at your local video
store.
Behind "Heavy-Metal'' Rock
The same year as Altamont, 1969, marked the beginning of the evil
career of Ozzie Osbourne. Osbourne formed the band Black Sabbath. The
group modelled itself on the Rolling Stones. The next fifteen years
would witness a procession of young drugged-out rock performers, like
Osbourne, each competing for the "big money'' and the recording
contracts that came with it. The key criteria of those who would
"make it'' was their ability to portray decadence and evil. These were
the "heavy-metal'' groups.
In 1985, <New Solidarity> newspaper, which has since been forcibly
shut down by the federal government, conducted an interview with
Hezekiah Ben Aaron, then the third-ranking member of the Church of
Satan. Ben Aaron is now a devout Christian. In the interview, Aaron
revealed that it was his Church that started such "heavy-metal'' rock
groups as Black Sabbath, The Blue Oyster Cult, The Who, Ozzy Osbourne,
and many others. The Church of Satan was then led by its high priest,
Anton LaVey. Many report, however, that LaVey, a former circus lion
tamer, was just a front man for the real high priest, Kenneth Anger,
the man who earlier recruited the Rolling Stones to the occult.
The following is an excerpt from that interview: "I was working for
the Church...the Church had other people who were middlemen for other
companies. There were middlemen for Apple [set up by the Beatles],
Warner Brothers, and other record companies. Someone would come to me
and say, `I have a tape recording, and I'd like for you to check it
out. I'd like to see if you would be interested in sponsoring a Rock
group.' I'd say `All right, I'll check it out.' A few days later Ben
Aaron would call back and set up another meeting. He continues, `I'd
hand you $100,000, and you wouldn't sign anything. What you wouldn't
know is that a mirror on the back of the wall is a one-way mirror and
we're tape recording and photographing, or video taping everything
that goes on. The payback, if you fail to make the group work, is
really bad. Sometimes it's up to 60% on the dollar.''
Aaron's interview continued: "we send you to a store, we provide
you with uniforms and we provide you with amplifiers. It's all paid
through the money we gave you. We set you up with a road tour. We set
you up with engagements. We book you.''
Aaron then explained that if the group did not make it he was given
orders to collect the money or make other "arrangements.'' These
"other arrangements,'' perhaps, are the key to the dozens of reported
rock star "suicides.'' The underworld drug mafia has ample means to
eliminate non-payers. Some readers may remember the following
statement Beatle John Lennon made to the international press back in
1966:
"Christianity will go. It will go. It will vanish and shrink. I
needn't argue about that. I'm right and I will be proved right. We are
more popular than Jesus now.''
Hopefully, he will be proven to be wrong.
<END OF ARTICLE>
Excerpts from Department of the Army Pamphlet 165-13
RELIGIOUS REQUIREMENTS AND PRACTICES OF CERTAIN SELECTED GROUPS
A HANDBOOK FOR CHAPLAINS
Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., dated 28 April 1978
Superintendant of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402
Stock Number: 008-020-00745-5
In the handbook, there are seven main sections, being Christain Heritage
Groups, Indian Heritage Groups, Islamic Groups, Japanese Heritage Groups, Jewish
Groups, Sikh Groups and 'Other' Groups.
This paper will deal exclusively with the 'Other' Groups, and more specifically,
the 'Old' religions. This category is broken down into: American Council of
Witches, Baha'i Faith, Church of Satan, Churches of Sciencetology, Foundation
Faith of the Millenium, Gardinerian Wicca, Native American Church and Universal
Life Church.
INTRODUCTION: 'OTHER' GROUPS
The groups considered in this section manifest the wide variety of religious
options available in the U.S. They draw upon several distinct religious
impulses, each with a long heritage.
MAGICK
Magick (not magic, which is considered a stage performers art and not a
religion) groups have experienced considerable growth since the 1960's. These
groups are distinguished by their use of occult practices (astrology and
divination) and magick (the ability to willfully change the world by
manipulating the cosmic forces). While like the psychic dimension, magick is as
old as known history. It's contemporary revival, however, began in the early
1900's.
The most popular form of magick is witchcraft. Not to be confused with
Satanism, witchcraft is a nature-oriented religion based on the worship of the
male-female polarity, the observance of the agricultural seasons, and magick.
Worship of the male-female aspects of nature usually expressed as allegiance to
the Horned God and the Great Mother Goddess. Ritual follows the movement of the
sun and moon.
Magick seeks mastery of all the cosmic forces believed to control the world.
Witches believe in the ancient principle of 'as above, so below', and in their
worship seek to create a microcosm, a magical image of the whole. The universe
is generally viewed as a sphere. The magical circle, drawn at the beginning of
all magical rituals, is the outline of the microcosm intersecting the floor.
Witchcraft had grown slowly until the repeal of the last of England's anti-
witchcraft laws in the 1950's. Growth accelerated in the 1960's and 1970's.
There are no less than thirty different witch (or the preferred term 'Wicca')
groups plus numerous independent covens functioning in the U.S. The American
Council of Witches represents the traditionalist covens which trace their
ancestry to various medievel European traditions. The Gardnerians are one of
several modern Wicca groups. Others are the Alexandrians, the Algard, and the
Church of Wicca of Bakersfield (CA). There are also several miscellaneous
traditions.
Secrecy is a major element of the existence of both witchcraft and Satanism.
Secrecy is protective and serves to guard the sacred mysteries of the group.
***The following excerpts are condensed, otherwise I would be typing out a whole
book.
AMERICAN COUNCIL OF WITCHES
HISTORICAL ROOTS: Witchcraft is the ancient PAGAN faith of Pre-Christian
Europe.
CURRENT WORLD LEADERSHIP: No central authority.
ORIGINS IN THE U.S.: Brought to the U.S. in the 17th century by emigrants from
Europe.
NUMBER OF ADHERENTS IN THE U.S.: Unknown. Between 10,000 and 100,000
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE: The basic structure is the coven with 5 to 50 members
(ideally 12-15) led by a High Priestess or High Priest.
LEADERSHIP: The High Priestess or High Priest has authority for the coven.
WHO MAY CONDUCT SERVICES: The High Priestess or High Priest.
IS GROUP WORSHIP REQUIRED: No, but encouraged.
WORSHIP REQUIREMENTS: None, but witches are expected to practice their faith.
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT FOR WORSHIP: The 'atheme,' the 'pentacle,' a chalice and a
sword.
SPECIAL HOLIDAYS: Spring Equinox, March 21; Summer Solstice, June 22; Autumn
Equinox, September 21; Winter Solstice, December 22; Candlemas, February 2,
Beltane, April 30; Lammas, July31; and Halloween, October 31. Besides these
eight, most groups meet either weekly or bi-weekly (on the full and new moon).
Major holidays are termed sabbats, and weekly or bi-weekly mettings are esbats.
FUNERAL AND BURIAL REQUIREMENTS: Practices vary widely but notify coven to
which associated.
IS A PRIESTESS OR PRIEST REQUIRED AT TIME OF DEATH: No.
BASIC TEACHINGS OR BELIEFS: Underlying agreements are summed up in the
"Principles of Wiccan Beliefs" adopted by the American Council of Witches.
CREEDAL STATEMENTS: The 'grimore' or book of spells and a 'book of shadows' or
book of ritual.
ETHICAL PRACTICES: 'An Ye Harm None, Do As Ye Will.'
RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER RELIGIONS: Cooperation with the whole Pagan community
is very high. Relations with other religions are cordial, except those groups
which have sought to persecute and defame the craft.
GARDNERIAN WICCA
HISTORICAL ROOTS: Founded by Gerald Gardner in 1954 due in part to the book
'Witchcraft Today'.
CURRENT WORLD LEADERSHIP: High Priestess Lady Theos and High Priest Phoenix.
ORIGINS IN THE U.S.: Brought to the U.S. by Lady Rowen from England in 1962.
NUMBER OF ADHERENTS IN THE U.S.: Unknown. Between 2,500 and 5,000.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE: The basic structure is the coven with 5 to 50 members
(ideally 12-15) led by a High Priestess or High Priest.
LEADERSHIP: The High Priestess or High Priest has authority for the coven.
WHO MAY CONDUCT SERVICES: Only the High Priestess can cast a circle.
IS GROUP WORSHIP REQUIRED: Yes, but individual worship is possible but not
encouraged.
WORSHIP REQUIREMENTS: Covens meet weekly or bi-weekly (at the full or new
moon), always in the evening. Worship in some (but not all) groups occur in the
nude.
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT FOR WORSHIP: The 'atheme,' a bowl of water, a censer with
incense, salt, an altar and 6 candles in candlesticks. The 'pentacle,' and a
sword are optional. All tools must be ritually consecrated by a High Priestess.
SPECIAL HOLIDAYS: Spring Equinox, March 21; Summer Solstice, June 22; Autumn
Equinox, September 21; Winter Solstice, December 22; Candlemas, February 2,
Beltane, April 30; Lammas, July31; and Halloween, October 31. Besides these
eight, most groups meet either weekly or bi-weekly (on the full and new moon).
Major holidays are termed sabbats, and weekly or bi-weekly mettings are esbats.
FUNERAL AND BURIAL REQUIREMENTS: Practices vary widely but notify coven to
which associated. Ritual tools or materials found among the remains of the
deceased should be immediately returned to the family or members of the coven.
IS A PRIESTESS OR PRIEST REQUIRED AT TIME OF DEATH: No, but it would be
permissable for any Chaplain to offer spiritual comfort at such times. Upon
death, a prayer may be directed to GOD for the release of the soul from the
Earth plane, separate and apart from any ritual work done by the member's coven.
BASIC TEACHINGS OR BELIEFS: Gardnerians worship the Mother Goddess and also the
Horned God, symbols of the basic polarity of all nature. They seek balance
within nature, within themselves, and between male and female.
CREEDAL STATEMENTS: 'The Book of Shadows' is authoriative.
ETHICAL PRACTICES: 'An Ye Harm None, Do As Ye Will.'
RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER RELIGIONS: Wicca is open toward other faiths,
recognizing that the Great Mother appears in these faiths under various names.
Because of the persecutions of past years, Wiccans take a guarded relation to
groups which claim to possess 'the Truth' or to be the 'Only Way.' Wicca is
only one path among many, and is not for everyone. Members are encouraged to
learn about other faiths and attend services, should they desire to do so.
ENDNOTE;
And so it goes. What is above as is below, Quitters never lose, Losers never quit. Beware the
Speedfreak Satanists, we are Relentless to achieve our goals.
-Seth Maxwell Malice
(uploaded aug. 24th, 1995)
|
|
|
To the best of our knowledge, the text on this page may be freely reproduced and distributed.
If you have any questions about this, please check out our Copyright Policy.
totse.com certificate signatures
|
|
|
About | Advertise | Bad Ideas | Community | Contact Us | Copyright Policy | Drugs | Ego | Erotica
FAQ | Fringe | Link to totse.com | Search | Society | Submissions | Technology
|
|
|
|
|
|
