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Frequently Asked Questions: Sumeria. For those int
Sumerian Mythology FAQ (Version 1.8)
by Christopher Siren, 1992,1994
[email protected]
http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren
This FAQ is posted on the third of every month to alt.mythology.
The latest copy of this FAQ is availible via anonymous ftp at:
rtfm.mit.edu at /pub/usenet/news.answers/mythology/sumer-faq
last changes: March 20, 1996: cleaned up some misleading references to Kur.
March 1, 1996: added the reference to Adapa's
dictionary.
Nov 2, 1995: added some short notes about the primary deities,
Ninhursag, and the Dilmun/Eden parallel to clarify some issues.
Oct 14, 1995: added brief reviews of the sources and related texts.
Adapa (Dan Sullivan) has assembled a more complete Sumerian-English
dictionary at:
http://webusers.anet-dfw.com/~adapa/Index.html
I have constructed a rudimentary Sumerian-English, English-Sumerian
glossary using Kramer's _The Sumerians_ and Jacobsen's _Treasures
of Darkness_. Interested parties may locate it at:
http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-dict or send me email for a
copy.
note: This FAQ is largely based on an anthropology paper which I wrote in
1992, using the sources detailed below.
Contents:
I. Overview
II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?
III. What Deities did they worship?
A. The Four Primary Dieties
B. The Seven who decreed fate
C. The Annuna and others
IV. What about the Underworld?
V. What are 'me' anyway?
VI. I've heard that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian
literature. What are they?
VII. Source material
VIII. Other books of interest.
I. Overview -
The religion of the ancient Sumerians has left its mark on the
entire middle east. Not only are its temples and ziggurats scattered
about the region, but the literature, cosmogony and rituals influenced
their neighbors to such an extent that we can see echoes of Sumer in
the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition today. From these ancient
temples, and to a greater extent, through cuneiform writings of
hymns, myths, lamentations, and incantations, archaeologists and
mythographers afford the modern reader a glimpse into the religious
world of the Sumerians.
Each city housed a temple that was the seat of a major god
in the Sumerian pantheon, as the gods controlled the powerful
forces which often dictated a human's fate. The city leaders had a
duty to please the town's patron deity, not only for the good will
of that god or goddess, but also for the good will of the other deities
in the council of gods. The priesthood initially held this role, and
even after secular kings ascended to power, the clergy still held
great authority through the interpretation of omens and dreams.
Many of the secular kings claimed divine right; Sargon of Agade,
for example claimed to have been chosen by Ishtar/Inanna.
(Crawford 1991: 21-24)
The rectangular central shrine of the temple, known as a
'cella,' had a brick altar or offering table in front of a statue of the
temple's deity. The cella was lined on its long ends by many
rooms for priests and priestesses. These mud-brick buildings were
decorated with cone geometrical mosaics, and the occasional fresco
with human and animal figures. These temple complexes eventually
evolved into towering ziggurats. (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983: 119)
The temple was staffed by priests, priestesses, musicians,
singers, castrates and hierodules. Various public rituals, food
sacrifices, and libations took place there on a daily basis. There
were monthly feasts and annual, New Year celebrations. During
the later, the king would be married to Inanna as the resurrected
fertility god Dumuzi, whose exploits are dealt with below.
When it came to more private matters, a Sumerian remained
devout. Although the gods preferred justice and mercy, they had
also created evil and misfortune. A Sumerian had little that he
could do about it. Judging from Lamentation records, the best one
could do in times of duress would be to "plead, lament and wail,
tearfully confessing his sins and failings." Their family god or city
god might intervene on their behalf, but that would not necessarily
happen. After all, man was created as a broken, labor saving, tool
for the use of the gods and at the end of everyone's life, lay the
underworld, a generally dreary place. (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983:
pp.123-124)
II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?
From verses scattered throughout hymns and myths, one can
compile a picture of the universe's (anki) creation according to the
Sumerians. The primeval sea (abzu) existed before anything else
and within that, the heaven (an) and the earth (ki) were formed.
The boundary between heaven and earth was a solid (perhaps tin)
vault, and the earth was a flat disk. Within the vault lay the gas-like
'lil', or atmosphere, the brighter portions therein formed the stars,
planets, sun, and moon. (Kramer, The Sumerians 1963: pp. 112-113)
Each of the four major Sumerian deities is associated with one of
these regions. An, god of heaven, may have been the main god of
the pantheon prior to 2500 BC., although his importance gradually
waned. Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth goddess,
whose name more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the
mountains), Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gave
birth). It seems likely that these two were the progenitors of most
of the gods.
III. What Deities did they worship?
A. The Primary Deities - It is notable that the Sumerians themselves
may not have grouped these four as a set and that the grouping has been made
because of the observations of Sumerologists.
An
An, god of heaven, may have been the main god of the pantheon prior
to 2500 BC., although his importance gradually waned. It seems likely
that he and Ki/Ninhursag were the progenitors of most of the gods.
His primary temple was in Erech. He and Enlil give various gods,
goddesses, and kings their earthly regions of influence and their laws.
Ninhursag
Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth goddess, whose name
more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the mountains), Ninmah (the
exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gave birth). It seems likely
that she and An were the progenitors of most of the gods. She is the
mother goddess and assists in the creation of man. There she added
constructive criticism to Enki as he shaped several versions of man
from the heart of the clay over the Abzu. In Dilmun, she bore eight
new trees from Enki. When he then ate her children, she cursed him
with eight wounds. After being persuaded by Enlil to undo her curse,
she bore Enki eight new children which undid the wounds of the first
ones. Most often she is considered Enlil's sister, but in some traditions
she is his spouse instead.
Enlil
An and Ki's union produced Enlil (Lord of 'lil'). Enlil was the air-
god and leader of the pantheon from at least 2500 BC. He assumed
most of An's powers. He is glorified as "'the father of the gods,'
'the king of heaven and earth,' ' the king of all the lands'".
Kramer portrays him as a patriarchal figure, who is both creator and
disciplinarian. Enlil effectuates the dawn, the growth of plants, and
bounty. He also invents agricultural tools such as the plow. He is
also banished to the nether world (kur) for his rape of Ninlil, his
intended bride, but returns with the first product of their union,
the moon god Sin (also known as Nanna). (Kramer, Sumerians 1963:
pp.118-121). Most often he is considered Ninlil's husband,
with Ninhursag as his sister, but some traditions have Ninhursag as
his spouse. (Jacobsen p.105) The me were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and
given to Enki to guard and impart to the world, beginning with Eridu,
Enki's center of worship. He helps Enki again when he was cursed by
Ninhursag. Enlil and a fox entreat her to return and undo her curse.
Enki
Contrary to the translation of his name, Enki is not the lord of the
earth, but of the abzu (the watery abyss and also semen) and of
wisdom. This contradiction leads Kramer and Maier to postulate that
he was once known as En-kur, lord of the underworld, which either
contained or was contained in the Abzu. He did struggle with Kur as
mentioned in the prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld",
and presumably was victorious and thereby able to claim the title
"Lord of Kur" (the realm). He is a god of water, creation, and
fertility. He also holds dominion over the land. He is the keeper of
the me, the divine laws. (Kramer & Maier Myths of Enki 1989: pp. 2-3)
The me were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard and
impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, his center of worship. From
there, he guards the me and imparts them on the people. He directs the
me towards Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun, organizing the world with his
decrees. Later, Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having been
given too little power from his decrees. In a different text, she gets
Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts, and attributes
- a total of ninety-four me. Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver
the me to her cult center at Erech. Enki recovers his wits and tries
to recover the me from her, but she arrives safely in Erech with them.
(Kramer & Maier 1989:pp. 38-68)
Enki sails for the Kur, presumably to rescue Ereshkigal after she
was given over to Kur. He is assailed by creatures with stones. These
creatures are sometimes interpreted as Kur itself. He is friendly to
Inanna and rescued her from Kur by sending two sexless beings to
negotiate with, and flatter Ereshkigal. They gave her the Bread of
Life and the Water of Life, which restored her.
He blessed the paradisiacal land of Dilmun, to have plentiful water
and palm trees. With Ninhursag, he created eight new types of trees
there. He then consumed these children and was cursed by Ninhursag,
with one wound for each plant consumed. Enlil and a fox act on
Enki's behalf to call back Ninhursag in order to undo the damage.
She joins with Enki again and bears eight new children, one to cure
each of the wounds. At the direction of his mother Nammu and with
some constructive criticism from Ninhursag, he created man from
the heart of the clay over the Abzu. Several flawed versions were
created before the final version was made.
III B.
In addition to the four primary deities, there were hundreds
of others. A group of seven "decreed the fates" - these probably
included the first four, as well as Nanna, his son Utu, the sun god and
a god of justice, and Nanna's daughter Inanna, goddess of love and war.
Inanna
Nanna's daughter, goddess of love and war. Like Enki, Inanna also
visits Kur, which results in a myth reminiscent of the Greek seasonal
story of Persephone. She sets out to witness the funeral rites of her
sister-in-law Ereshkigal's husband Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven. She
takes precaution before setting out, by telling her servant Ninshubur
to seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna, or Enki at their shrines, should
she not return. Inanna knocks on the outer gates of Kur and the
gatekeeper, Neti, questions her. He consults with queen Ereshkigal and
then allows Inanna to pass through the seven gates of the underworld.
After each gate, she is required to remove adornments and articles of
clothing, until after the seventh gate, she is naked. The Annuna pass
judgment against her and Ereshkigal killed her and hung her on the
wall. (see Ereshkigal) (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60)
Inanna is rescued by the intervention of Enki. He creates two
sexless creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's suffering, and
thereby gain a gift - Inanna's corpse. They restore her to life with
the Bread of Life and the Water of Life, but the Sumerian underworld
has a conservation of death law. No one can leave without providing
someone to stay in their stead. Inanna is escorted by galla/demons
past Ninshubur and members of her family. She doesn't allow them to
claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi on his throne in Uruk, (dressed in
his "me"-robes and not mourning like the others). With consent, they
seize Dumuzi, but he escapes them twice by transforming himself, with
the aid of Utu. Eventually he is caught and slain. Inanna spies his
sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go to Dumuzi. She allows
Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld only six months of the
year, while Geshtinanna will stay the other six. (Wolkstein & Kramer
pp. 60-89) As with the Greek story of the kidnapping of Persephone,
this linked the changing seasons, the emergence of the plants from the
ground, with the return of a harvest deity from the nether world.
(see also Dumuzi) Geshtinanna is also associated with growth, but where
her brother rules over the spring harvested grain, she rules over the
autumn harvested vines (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 168).
Another important concept in Sumerian theology, was that of me. (see
section V.) The me were universal decrees of divine authority. They
are the invocations that spread arts, crafts, and civilization. Enki
became the keeper of the me. Inanna comes to Enki and complains at
having been given too little power from his decrees. In a different
text, she gets Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts,
and attributes - a total of ninety-four me. Inanna parts company with
Enki to deliver the me to her cult center at Erech. Enki recovers his
wits and tries to recover the me from her, but she arrives safely in
Erech with them.
(Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38-68)
Nanna
Nanna is another name for the moon god Sin. He is the product of
Enlil's rape of Ninlil. (Kramer, 1963, pp. 146-7.) Nanna
was the tutelary deity of Ur (Kramer 1963 p. 66), appointed as king of
that city by An and Enlil. He established Ur-Nammu as his mortal
representative, establishing the third Ur dynasty. Nanna was married
to Ningal and they produced Inanna and Utu. He rests in the Underworld
every month, and there decrees the fate of the dead. He averts a flood
of his city by visiting Enlil in Nippur on a boat loaded with gifts and
pleading with him. He refuses to send aid to Inanna when she is
trapped in the underworld.
Utu
Son of Nanna and Ningal, god of the Sun and of Justice, Utu goes to
the underworld at the end of every day and while there decrees the fate
of the dead. He aided Dumuzi in his flight from the galla demons by
helping him to transform into different creatures. He opened the
"ablal" of the Underworld for Enkidu, to allow him to escape, at the
behest of Enki. Through Enki's orders, he also brings water up from
the earth in order to irrigate Dilmun, the garden paradise, the place
where the sun rises. He does not help Inanna when she has difficulties
with her huluppu-tree.
III. C. The Annuna
At the next level were fifty "great gods", possibly the same as the
Anunna, although several gods confined to the underworld are
specifically designated Anunna, An's children. (Kramer 1963:
pp. 122-123).
Ninlil
Ninlil was the intended bride of Enlil. Enlil raped her and was
then banished to the nether world (kur). She follows him to the
nether world, where she gives birth to the moon god Sin (also known as
Nanna). They have three more children in the nether world who remain
there so that Sin may be allowed to leave. (Kramer, Sumerians 1963:
pp.146-7). Her chief shrine was in the Tummal district of Nippur. In
texts she is Enlil's sister and Ninhursag is his wife.
Nammu
Nammu is the Goddess of the watery abyss and is Enki's mother. She
instructs him on how, with the help of Nimmah/Ninhursag to create man.
Ningal
She is Nanna's wife and the mother of Inanna and Utu. She begs and
weeps before An and Enlil for them not to flood her city, Ur.
Ereshkigal
Ereshkigal is the queen of the underworld, who is either given to Kur
in the underworld or given dominion over the underworld in the prelude
to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld". She has a palace there and is
due a visit by those entering Kur. When Inanna trespassed on her domain,
Ereshkigal:
...fastened on Inanna the eye of death.
She spoke against her the word of wrath.
She uttered against her the cry of guilt
She struck her.
Inanna was turned into a corpse,
...And was hung from a hook on the wall.( Wolkstein & Kramer 1983
p. 60)
She was married to Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven.
Nidaba - the goddess of writing and the patron deity of the edubba
(palace archives).
Ninisinna (Nininsinna) - patron goddess of the city Isin. She is the
"hierodule of An"
Dumuzi (demigod)
He has a palace in Kur, and is due a visit by those entering Kur. He
is Inanna's husband. In life, he was the shepherd king of Uruk. He
successfully courted and married Inanna. Following the consummation
of this marriage, he was given divine powers over the fertility of
plants and animals, especially over grain. Upon her rescue from the
dead, he was found on his throne in his "me"-robes. Inanna named him
as her substitute for the underworld. He was pursued by galla demons,
which he eluded for a time with the aid of Utu. Eventually he was
caught and slain; however, he was partially freed from his stay in the
underworld by the actions of his sister Geshtinanna. Now he resides
there only half of the year, while she lives there the other half year;
this represents seasonal change (see Inanna and Geshtinanna). He is
also known as Tammuz.
Gilgamesh (demigod)
After his adventures, he is given a palace in the nether world and
venerated as lesser god of the dead. It is respectful to pay him a
visit upon arrival. If he knew you in life or is of your kin he may
explain the rules of Kur to you. (see Enkidu)
Geshtinanna (demigoddess)
She is Dumuzi's sister. After his death, she visited him in the
underworld with Inanna, and was allowed to take his place there for six
months out of the year. Her time in the underworld and her periodic
emergence from it are linked with her new divine authority over the
autumn vines and wine. (see also Inanna, Dumuzi)
Gugalanna
The Bull of Heaven, Ereshkigal's husband.
Kur
Kur is the name of underworld, the area which either contained or was
contianed by the Abzu. Enki also struggled with Kur as mentioned in the
prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld", and presumably was
victorious and thereby able to claim the title "Lord of Kur" (the
realm). Kramer suggests that Kur was a dragon-like creature, calling
to mind Tiamat and Leviathan. The texts suggests that Enki's struggle
may have been with instruments of the land of kur - its stones or its
creatures hurling stones.
Enkidu
The main body of the Gilgamesh tale includes a trip to the nether-
world. Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through a gate, in order to
recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku, objects of an uncertain nature.
He broke several taboos of the underworld, including the wearing of
clean clothes and sandals, 'good' oil, carrying a weapon or staff,
making a noise, or behaving normally towards ones family (Kramer 1963:
pp. 132-133). For these violations he was "held fast by 'the outcry of
the nether world'". Intervention by Enki, rescued the hero.
Gods in Kur with palaces who are due reverence:
Nergal - Nergal is perhaps the co-ruler of Kur with Ereshkigal, he is
more prominent in Babylonian literature.
Namtar
Hubishag
Ningishzida - the god of dawn
Dimpemekug - due gifts, no palace
the scribe of Kur - due gifts, no palace
The Sumerians had many other deities as well, most of which appear to
have been minor.
IV. What about the Underworld?
The underworld of the Sumerians is revealed, to some extent,
by a composition about the death and afterlife of the king and
warlord Ur-Nammu. After having died on the battlefield, Ur-
Nammu arrives below, where he offers sundry gifts and sacrifices
to the "seven gods" of the nether world:
...Nergal, [the deified] Gilgamesh, Ereshkigal [the queen of
the underworld, who is either given to Kur in the underworld
or given dominion over the underworld in the prelude to
Gilgamesh (Kramer & Maier 1989: p. 83) (Wolkstein & Kramer
1983: p. 4)] , Dumuzi [the shepherd, Inanna's husband], Namtar,
Hubishag, and Ningishzida - each in his own palace; he also
presented gifts to Dimpimekug and to the "scribe of the nether-
world."... [After arriving at his assigned spot] ...certain of
the dead were turned over to him, perhaps to be his attendants,
and Gilgamesh, his beloved brother, explained to him the rules
and regulations of the nether world. (Kramer 1963: p. 131)
Another tablet indicates that the sun, moon, and their respective gods,
spent time in the underworld as well. The sun journeyed there after
setting, and the moon rested there at the end of the month. Both Utu
and Nanna '''decreed the fate' of the dead" while there.(Kramer 1963:
p. 132) Dead heroes ate bread, drank, and quenched the dead's thirst
with water. The gods of the nether world, the deceased, and his city,
were prayed to for the benefit of the dead and his family.
The Sumerian version of Gilgamesh includes a trip to the nether
world as well. In the prologue, Enki sails for the Kur, presumably to
rescue Ereshkigal after she was given over to Kur. He is assailed by
creatures with stones. The main body of the tale includes a trip to
the nether world as well. Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through
a gate, in order to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku, objects of
an uncertain nature. He broke several taboos of the underworld,
including the wearing of clean clothes and sandals, 'good' oil, carrying
a weapon or staff, making a noise, or behaving normally towards ones
family (Kramer 1963: pp. 132-133). For these violations he was "held
fast by 'the outcry of the nether world'". Intervention by Enki, rescued
the hero.
Inanna also visits Kur, which results in a myth reminiscent of the
Greek seasonal story of Persephone. She sets out to witness the funeral
rites of her sister-in-law Ereshkigal's husband Gugalanna, the Bull of
Heaven. She takes precaution before setting out, by telling her servant
Ninshubur to seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna, or Enki at their shrines,
should she not return. Inanna knocks on the outer gates of Kur and the
gatekeeper, Neti, questions her. He consults with queen Ereshkigal and
then allows Inanna to pass through the seven gates of the underworld.
After each gate, she is required to remove adornments and articles of
clothing, until after the seventh gate, she is naked. The Annuna pass
judgment against her and Ereshkigal slays her and hangs her on the wall
(Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60)
Inanna is rescued by the intervention of Enki. He creates two sexless
creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's suffering, and thereby gain a
gift - Inanna's corpse. They restore her to life with the Bread of Life
and the Water of Life, but the Sumerian underworld has a conservation of
death law. No one can leave without providing someone to stay in their
stead. Inanna is escorted by galla/demons past Ninshubur and members of
her family. She doesn't allow them to claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi
on his throne in Uruk. They then seize Dumuzi, but he escapes them twice
by transforming himself, with the aid of Utu. Eventually he is caught
and slain. Inanna spies his sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go
to Dumuzi. She allows Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld
only six months of the year, while Geshtinanna will stay the other six.
(Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 60-89) As with the Greek story of the
kidnapping of Persephone, this linked the changing seasons, the
emergence of the plants from the ground, with the return of a harvest
deity from the nether world. Although he had always been a shepherd (and
possibly a mortal king) he was blessed with the powers of fertility
following the consummation of his marriage to Inanna in The courtship of
Inanna and Dumuzi.
As the farmer, let him make the fields fertile,
As the shepherd, let him make the sheepfolds multiply,
Under his reign let there be vegetation,
Under his reign let there be rich grain (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 45)
Geshtinanna is also associated with growth, but where her brother rules
over the spring harvested grain, she rules over the autumn harvested
vines (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 168)
V. What are 'me' anyway?
Another important concept in Sumerian theology, was that of me.
The me were universal decrees of divine authority. They are the
invocations that spread arts, crafts, and civilization. The me were
assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard and impart to the
world, beginning with Eridu, his center of worship. From there, he
guards the me and imparts them on the people. He directs the me towards
Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun, organizing the world with his decrees. Later,
Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having been given too little power
from his decrees. In a different text, she gets Enki drunk and he grants
her more powers, arts, crafts, and attributes - a total of ninety-four
me. Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver the me to her cult center
at Erech. Enki recovers his wits and tries to recover the me from her,
but she arrives safely in Erech with them. (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38-
68)
VI. I've heard that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian
literature. What are they?
Traces of Sumerian religion survive today and are reflected in
writings of the Bible. As late as Ezekiel, there is mention of a
Sumerian deity. In Ezekiel 8:14, the prophet sees women of Israel
weeping for Tammuz (Dumuzi) during a drought.
The bulk of Sumerian parallels can, however be found much earlier,
in the book of Genesis. As in Genesis, the Sumerians' world is formed
out of the watery abyss and the heavens and earth are divinely separated
from one another by a solid dome. The second chapter of Genesis
introduces the paradise Eden, a place which is similar to the Sumerian
Dilmun, described in the myth of "Enki and Ninhursag". Dilmun is a pure,
bright, and holy land. It is blessed by Enki to have overflowing, sweet
water. Enki fills it with lagoons and palm trees. He impregnates
Ninhursag and causes eight new plants to grow from the earth. Eden, "in
the East" (Gen. 2:8) has a river which also "rises" or overflows, to form
four rivers including the Tigris and Euphrates. It too is lush and has fruit
bearing trees. (Gen. 2:9-14) In the second version of the creation of man
"The Lord God formed man out of the clay of the ground and blew into his
nostrils the breath of life, and so man became a living being." Enki and
Ninmah (Ninhursag) use a similar method in creation man. Nammu, queen of the
abyss and Enki's mother, bids Enki to "Kneed the 'heart' of the clay that
is over the Abzu " and "give it form" (Kramer & Maier p. 33) From there
the similarities cease as the two create several malformed humans and
then the two deities get into an argument.
Returning to Enki and Ninhursag, we find a possible parallel to
the creation of Eve. Enki consumed the plants that were Ninhursag's
children and so was cursed by Ninhursag, receiving one wound for each
plant consumed. Enlil and a fox act on Enki's behalf to call back
Ninhursag in order to undo the damage. She joins with him again and
bears eight new children, each of whom are the cure to one of his wounds.
The one who cures his rib is named Ninti, whose name means the Queen of
months, (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 28-30) the lady of the rib, or she who
makes live. This association carries over to Eve. (Kramer, History
Begins at Sumer 1981: pp. 143-144) In Genesis, Eve is fashioned from
Adam's rib and her name hawwa is related to the Hebrew word hay or
living. (New American Bible p. 7.) The prologue of Gilgamesh may contain
the predecessor to the tree of knowledge of good and evil. This tree not
only contains a crafty serpent, but also Lilith, the legendary first wife
of Adam. The huluppu tree is transplanted by Inanna from the banks of
the Euphrates to her garden in Uruk, where she finds that:
...a serpent who could not be charmed
made its nest in the roots of the tree,
The Anzu bird set his young in the branches of the tree,
And the dark maid Lilith built her home in the trunk. (Wolkstein
and Kramer 1983: p. 8)
Another possible Sumerian carry-over related to the Fall of man is the
lack of "pangs of childbearing" for those in Dilmun. In particular,
Ninhursag gives birth in nine days, not nine months, and the pass "like
good princely cream" (Kramer 1981: p. 142,145) or "fine oil" (Kramer &
Maier 1989: p. 25)
The clearest Biblical parallel comes from the story of the Flood.
In the Sumerian version, the pious Ziusudra is informed of the gods
decision to destroy mankind by listening to a wall. He too weathers the
deluge aboard a huge boat. The flood lasts a long time, but Ziusudra
comes to rest within seven days and not the Biblical forty days. He does
not receive a covenant, but is given eternal life.
VII. Sources
Crawford, Harriet, _Sumer_and_the_Sumerians_, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1991. (This is a briefer but more up to date archaeological
look at the Sumerians than you'll find with Kramer. There isn't much
mythic content in this one, but there are many wonderful figures
detailing city plans, and the structure of temples and other
buildings.)
Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Maier, John, _Myths_of_Enki,_the_Crafty_God_,
Oxford University Press, New York,1989. The most recent work that
I've been able to find by Kramer. They translate and analyze all
of the availible myths which include Enki. I've only seen it availible
in hardcover and I haven't seen it in a bookstore yet.
Kramer, Samuel Noah _The_Sumerians_ The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago,1963. (This is a more thorough work than Kramer's
Section at the end of _Inanna_, but the intervening 20 or so years
of additional research and translation allow _Inanna_'s section
to be perhaps more complete, regarding mythology.)
Wolkstein, Diane and Kramer, Samuel Noah, _Inanna:_Queen_of_Heaven_and_
_Earth_, Harper & Row, NY, 1983. (Ms. Wolkstein's verse
translations of the Inanna/Dummuzi cycle of myths are excellent,
and Kramer gives a 30 or so page description of Sumerian cosmology
and society at the end)
_The_New_American_Bible_, Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, 1970.
VIII. Other books of interest
Hooke, S. H. _Middle_Eastern_Mythology_, Penguin Books, New York, 1963.
This work covers Sumerian, Babylonian, Canaanite/Ugaritic, Hittite,
and Hebrew mythologic material in brief and with comparisons.
Jacobsen, Thorkild, _The_Treasures_of_Darkness_, Yale University Press,
New Haven, 1976. A good alternative to Kramer, Jacobsen explores
Mesopotamian religious development from early Sumerian times through
the Babylonian Enuma Elish. Most of the book winds up being on
the Sumerians.
Kramer, Samuel Noah, _History_Begins_at_Sumer_, University of
Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1981. (This text runs through a bunch
of "firsts" that Kramer attributes to the Sumerians. I only looked at
it briefly, but it seemed to contain about the same information as
was in _The_Sumerians_ only in a "Wow neat!" format instead of
something more coherent.)
Kramer, Samuel Noah, _Sumerian_Mythology_, Harper & Brothers, New York,
1961. This slim volume contains much of the mythologic material that
wound up in _The_Sumerians_ but concentrated in one spot and without
much cultural or historical detail.
Pritchard, J.B.(ed.) _Ancient_Near_Eastern_Texts_Relating_to_the_Old_Testament_,
Princeton, 1955. I understand that there is a later edition of this
work. It seems to be the authoritative source for all complete texts
of the Sumerians, Babylonians, Canaanites, Hittites, and perhaps
other groups as well. It's pricey but many libraries have a copy.
Stephenson, Neal, _Snowcrash_, Bantam Books, New York, 1992. Cyberpunk meets
Enki, Inanna, and the Me.
Wooley, C. Leonard, _Excavations_at_Ur_, 1954. This is one of the
earliest works on the subject, and as such is not as complete as
the others although it is of historical interest.
_Old_Testement_, Princeton, 1969.
see also the Assyro-Babylonian Mythology FAQ.
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