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Info about Shuttle Flight STS- 31
NASA
SPACE SHUTTLE MISSION STS-31
PRESS KIT
APRIL 1990
PUBLIC AFFAIRS CONTACTS
Ed Campion
Office of Space Flight
NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C.
(Phone: 202/453-8536)
Paula Cleggett-Haleim
Office of Space Science and Applications
NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C.
(Phone: 202/453-1548)
Barbara Selby
Office of Commercial Programs
NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C.
(Phone: 202/453-2927)
Dwayne Brown
Office of Space Operations
NASA Headquaters, Washington, D.C.
(Phone: 202/453-8956)
Lisa Malone
Kennedy Space Center, Fla.
(Phone: 407/867-2468)
Kyle Herring
Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas
(Phone: 713/483-5111)
Dave Drachlis/Jerry Berg
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala.
(Phone: 205/544-0034)
Myron Webb
Stennis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, Miss.
(Phone: 601/688-3341)
Nancy Lovato
Ames-Dryden Flight Research Facility, Edwards, Calif.
(Phone: 805/258-8381)
Robert J. MacMillin
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
(Phone: 818/354-5011)
Jim Elliott
Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
(Phone: 301/286-6256)
CONTENTS
GENERAL RELEASE
GENERAL INFORMATION
STS-31 QUICK LOOK
SUMMARY OF MAJOR ACTIVITIES
TRAJECTORY SEQUENCE OF EVENTS
SPACE SHUTTLE ABORT MODES
STS-31 PRELAUNCH PROCESSING
PAYLOAD AND VEHICLE WEIGHTS
HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE
Hubble Space Telescope and its Elements
Science Instruments
ORBITAL VERIFICATION
HST ACTIVATION IN DISCOVERY'S CARGO BAY
RELEASE OF HST
APERTURE DOOR OPENING THROUGH END OF OV/1
OV/2 FIRST WEEK
OV/2 SECOND WEEK
OV/2 THIRD WEEK
OV/2 FOURTH WEEK
OV/2 FIFTH WEEK THROUGH END OF OV/2
SCIENCE VERIFICATION
SCIENCE OPERATIONS
COMMAND, CONTROL AND OBSERVATION
TRACKING AND DATA RELAY SATELLITE SYSTEM
SPACE TELESCOPE OPERATIONS CONTROL
SPACE TELESCOPE SCIENCE INSTITUTE
EUROPEAN COORDINATING FACILITY
HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE SPECIFICATIONS
FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF HST OPERATIONS
SCIENCE QUESTIONS HST WILL HELP ANSWER
HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE PROGRAM HISTORY
NASA ESTABLISHES A TELESCOPE OFFICE
HST CONSTRUCTION TAKES A DECADE
MODULAR DESIGN ENHANCES MAINTENANCE
PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS COME FROM ALL OVER
HUNTSVILLE OPERATIONS SUPPORT CENTER
HST CONTRACTORS AND SUBCONTRACTORS
PROTEIN CRYSTAL GROWTH EXPERIMENT
INVESTIGATIONS INTO POLYMER MEMBRANE PROCESSING 32
ASCENT PARTICLE MONITOR
RADIATION MONITORING EXPERIMENT
STUDENT SCIENCE INVESTIGATION PROJECT
IMAX
CREW BIOGRAPHIES
MISSION MANAGEMENT FOR HST LAUNCH
UPCOMING SPACE SHUTTLE MISSIONS (Graphic)
SPACE SHUTTLE FLIGHTS AS OF MARCH 1990 (Graphic)
GENERAL RELEASE
RELEASE: 90-44
DISCOVERY TO STATION HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE IN EARTH ORBIT
Highlighting mission STS-31, the 35th flight of the Space
Shuttle, will be deployment in Earth orbit of the Hubble Space
Telescope (HST).
HST, the largest on-orbit observatory ever built, is capable
of imaging objects up to 14 billion light years away. Unhampered
by Earth's atmospheric distortion, resolution of HST images is
expected to be 7 to 10 times greater than images from Earth-based
telescopes.
Orbiting at an altitude of 330 nautical miles, the telescope
will observe celestial sources such as quasars, galaxies and
gaseous nebulae. HST also will monitor atmospheric and surface
phenomena of the planets in Earth's solar system.
After launch, and once the payload bay doors are opened, the
HST main power busses will be activated allowing initial
communications to be established. This will begin a 90-day
orbital verification period in which the telescope will be
checked to ensure that all systems are operational and
functioning. During this period, the crew cabin will be
depressurized in preparation for contingency activities that may
arise related to the telescope's deployment.
HST, which measures 43.5 feet long and 14 feet in diameter,
is scheduled to be deployed on the second day of the 5-day
flight. Umbilical disconnect is planned on orbit 16 followed by
solar array extension and slew tests on orbits 17 and 18. The
high gain antennae boom deployment also is scheduled for orbit
18. During HST checkout operations prior to release from the
remote manipulator system (RMS) arm, Mission Specialists Bruce
McCandless and Kathryn Sullivan will be prepared for an
extravehicular activity (EVA) if necessary.
The RMS will maneuver the telescope to the release position
on orbit 19 with release scheduled for 1:47 p.m. EDT on April 13
based on a nominal launch time. The IMAX Cargo Bay Camera will
film various points of the checkout and release of HST. Once HST
is released, Discovery's crew will maneuver the orbiter away from
HST to a distance of about 40 nautical miles. For the next 45
hours, the crew will trail HST in the event a rendezvous and
spacewalk are required in response to a failure during the
opening of the telescope's aperture door which protects the 94
1/2 inch mirror -- the smoothest ever made. Activation of HST's
six onboard scientific instruments will follow aperture door
opening on flight day three, orbit 39. The remainder of the
flight is reserved for middeck experiment operations.
Joining HST in the payload bay will be the Ascent Particle
Monitor to measure particle contamination or particle detachment
during the immediate prelaunch period and during Shuttle
ascent. Also in the payload bay is an IMAX camera containing
about 6 minutes of film. Discovery's middeck will carry a
variety of experiments to study protein crystal growth, polymer
membrane processing, and the effects of weightlessness and
magnetic fields on an ion arc.
Commander of the mission is Loren J. Shriver, Air Force
Colonel. Charles F. Bolden Jr., Marine Corps Colonel, will serve
as pilot. Shriver was pilot of Discovery's third flight, STS-51C
in January 1985, the first dedicated Department of Defense
Shuttle mission. Bolden previously was pilot of Columbia's
seventh flight in January 1986.
Mission specialists are Steven A. Hawley, Bruce McCandless
II and Dr. Kathryn D. Sullivan. Hawley will operate and release
HST from the RMS arm. Hawley's previous spaceflight experience
includes Discovery's maiden voyage, STS-41D and Columbia's
seventh flight, STS-61C. McCandless previously flew on STS-41B,
Challenger's fourth flight. Sullivan flew on Challenger's sixth
mission, STS-41G.
Liftoff of the tenth flight of Discovery is scheduled for
9:21 a.m. EDT on April 12 from Kennedy Space Center, Fla., launch
pad 39-B, into a 330 by 310 nautical mile, 28.5 degree orbit.
Nominal mission duration is expected to be 5 days 1 hour 15
minutes. Deorbit is planned on orbit 75, with landing scheduled
for 10:36 a.m. EDT on April 17 at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif.
- END OF GENERAL RELEASE -
GENERAL INFORMATION
NASA Select Television Transmission
NASA Select television is available on Satcom F-2R,
Transponder 13, C-band located at 72 degrees west longitude,
frequency 3960.0 MHz, vertical polarization, audio monaural 6.8
MHz.
The schedule for tv transmissions from the orbiter and for
the change-of-shift briefings from Johnson Space Center, Houston,
will be available during the mission at Kennedy Space Center,
Fla.; Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala.; Johnson
Space Center; Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. and
NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. The schedule will be updated
daily to reflect changes dictated by mission operations.
TV schedules also may be obtained by calling COMSTOR,
713/483-5817. COMSTOR is a computer data base service requiring
the use of a telephone modem. Voice updates of the TV schedule
may be obtained by dialing 202/755-1788. This service is updated
daily at noon EDT.
Special Note to Broadcasters
In the 5 workdays before launch, short sound bites of
astronaut interviews with the STS-31 crew will be available to
broadcasters by calling 202/755-1788 between 8 a.m. and noon EDT.
Status Reports
Status reports on countdown and mission progress, on-orbit
activities and landing operations will be produced by the
appropriate NASA news center.
Briefings
An STS-31 mission press briefing schedule will be issued
prior to launch. During the mission, flight control personnel
will be on 8-hour shifts. Change-of-shift briefings by the off-
going flight director will occur at approximately 8-hour
intervals.
STS-31 QUICK LOOK
Launch Date: April 12, 1990
Launch Window: 9:21 a.m. - 1:21 p.m. EDT
Launch Site: Kennedy Space Center, Fla.
Launch Complex: 39B
Orbiter: Discovery (OV-103)
Altitude: 330 circular
Inclination: 28.45
Duration: 5 days, 1 hour, 15 minutes
Landing Date/Time: April 17, 1990, 10:36 a.m. EDT
Primary Landing Site: Edwards Air Force Base, Calif.
Abort Landing Sites: Return to Launch Site -- KSC
TransAtlantic Abort - Ben Guerir, Morocco
Abort Once Around - Edwards AFB, Calif.
Crew: Loren J. Shriver - Commander
Charles F. Bolden Jr - Pilot
Steven A. Hawley - MS-2
Bruce McCandless II - MS-1 and EV1
Kathryn D. Sullivan - MS-3 and EV2
Cargo Bay Payloads: Hubble Space Telescope
IMAX Cargo Bay Camera
Middeck Payloads: Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
Investigations into Polymer Membrane
Processing (IPMP)
Ion Arc (Student Experiment)
Protein Crystal Growth (PCG-III)
SUMMARY OF MAJOR ACTIVITIES
Day One
Ascent RMS checkout
Post-insertion DSO
Unstow cabin EMU checkout
10.2 cabin depress PCG activation
Day Two
HST deploy IMAX
DSO IPMP activation
Day Three
DSO/DTO Ion Arc (Student Exp)
IMAX RME Memory Module Replacement
Day Four
14.7 repress IMAX
DSO RME Memory Module Replacement
Day Five
AMOS PCG deactivation
DSO RCS hotfire
FCS checkout RME deactivation
IMAX Cabin stow
Day Six
DSO Deorbit burn
Deorbit preparations Landing at EAFB
TRAJECTORY SEQUENCE OF EVENTS
_________________________________________________________________
RELATIVE
EVENT MET VELOCITY MACH ALTITUDE
(d:h:m:s) (fps) (ft)
_________________________________________________________________
Launch 00/00:00:00
Begin Roll Maneuver 00/00:00:09 160 .14 605
End Roll Maneuver 00/00:00:15 313 .28 2,173
SSME Throttle Down to 67% 00/00:00:28 656 .58 7,771
Max. Dyn. Pressure (Max Q) 00/00:00:51 1,155 1.07 25,972
SSME Throttle Up to 104% 00/00:00:59 1,321 1.26 33,823
SRB Staging 00/00:02:06 4,145 3.77 159,670
Negative Return 00/00:04:06 7,153 7.15 341,470
Main Engine Cutoff (MECO) 00/00:08:33 24,768 23.18 361,988
Zero Thrust 00/00:08:39 24,783 22.65 366,065
ET Separation 00/00:08:51
OMS 2 Burn 00/00:42:38
HST Deploy (orbit 19) 01/05:23:00
Deorbit Burn (orbit 75) 05/00:03:00
Landing (orbit 76) 05/01:15:00
Apogee, Perigee at MECO: 325 x 27
Apogee, Perigee post-OMS 2: 330 x 310
Apogee, Perigee post deploy: 332 x 331
SPACE SHUTTLE ABORT MODES
Space Shuttle launch abort philosophy aims toward safe and
intact recovery of the flight crew, orbiter and its payload.
Abort modes include:
* Abort-To-Orbit (ATO) -- Partial loss of main engine thrust late
enough to permit reaching a minimal 105-nautical mile orbit with
orbital maneuvering system engines.
* Abort-Once-Around (AOA) -- Earlier main engine shutdown with
the capability to allow one orbit around before landing at
Edwards Air Force Base, Calif.; White Sands Space Harbor
(Northrup Strip), N.M.; or the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at
Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Fla.
* Trans-Atlantic Abort Landing (TAL) -- Loss of two main engines
midway through powered flight would force a landing at Ben
Guerir, Morocco; Moron, Spain; or Banjul, The Gambia.
* Return-To-Launch-Site (RTLS) -- Early shutdown of one or more
engines and without enough energy to reach Ben Guerir, would
result in a pitch around and thrust back toward KSC until within
gliding distance of the SLF.
STS-31 contingency landing sites are Edwards AFB, White
Sands, KSC, Ben Guerir, Moron and Banjul. For a contingency
return of Discovery with the Hubble Space Telescope, conditioned
purge air will be supplied to the payload bay within 40 minutes
after landing.
STS-31 PRELAUNCH PROCESSING
Shuttle processing activities at Kennedy Space Center for
the STS-31/Hubble Space Telescope mission began on Dec. 3,
following the orbiter Discovery's return to KSC after completion
of the STS-33 mission of November 1989.
During its 3-month stay in the Orbiter Processing Facility,
Discovery underwent some 36 modifications to its structural,
flight and onboard systems. These modifications included the
installation of new carbon brakes which will provide greater
stopping power and control during landing. The brakes have
undergone extensive preflight testing at Wright Patterson AFB in
Ohio, with further testing to be conducted under actual landings
conditions. The high pressure oxidizer turbo pumps on
Discovery's main engines have been instrumented for the first
time to provide data on bearing wear. The data provided, along
with a post-flight analysis of the pumps, will help determine
whether the pumps need to be rebuilt after each flight as is
currently the case. The location of Discovery's main engines are
the same as for the last mission: 2011 in the No. 1 position,
2031 in the No. 2 position and 2107 in the No. 3 position.
The remote manipulator system was installed in Discovery's
payload bay and checked out during the first two weeks in
January. The robot arm will be used to deploy the Hubble Space
Telescope.
Discovery's right aft solid rocket booster was replaced with
one designated for the STS-35 mission after data indicated that a
critical leak test had not been performed correctly on one of the
internal joints. The replacement was necessary because the
location of the joint precluded retesting at KSC. The assembled
vehicle, atop mobile launcher platform 2, was rolled out to
Launch Pad 39B on March 15.
The Hubble Space Telescope arrived at KSC from the Lockheed
Sunnyvale, Calif. facility on Oct. 4, 1989, and began prelaunch
testing in the Vertical Processing Facility. It was powered up
on Oct. 28 via satellite command from Lockheed's HST control
facility in Sunnyvale, beginning 40 days of functional testing of
its operating systems and science instruments. These tests
included 11 days of on-orbit simulations via satellite link with
the Space Telescope Operations Control Center (STOCC) at Goddard
Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
The launch countdown is scheduled to begin 3 days prior to
launch. During the countdown, the orbiter's onboard fuel storage
tanks will be loaded and all orbiter systems will be configured
for flight. About 9 hours before launch, the external tank will
be loaded with its flight load of liquid oxygen and liquid
hydrogen propellants.
Discovery is scheduled to land at Edwards AFB, Calif. KSC's
landing and recovery team at NASA's Ames-Dryden Flight Research
Facility will prepare the vehicle for its ferry flight back to
KSC, expected to begin approximately 5 days after landing.
PAYLOAD AND VEHICLE WEIGHTS
Vehicle/Payload Weight (lbs)
Orbiter Discovery Empty 151,314
Remote Manipulator System (payload bay) 858
Hubble Space Telescope (payload bay) 23,981
Ascent Particle Monitor (payload bay) 47
IMAX system (payload bay) 374
DSO 77
DTO 289
HST middeck equipment 127
IMAX (middeck) 271
Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) 17
Ion Arc (Student Experiment) 54
Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) 85
Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME) 7
Orbiter and Cargo at main engine cutoff 259,229
Total Vehicle at SRB Ignition 4,516,325
Orbiter Landing Weight 189,477
HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE
The Hubble Space Telescope and its Elements
The HST weighs approximately 24,000 pounds, is 43 feet long,
and 14 feet in diameter at its widest point. Roughly the size of
a railroad tank car, it looks more like two huge cylinders joined
together and wrapped in aluminum foil. Wing-like solar arrays
extend horizontally from each side of these cylinders, and dish-
shaped antennas stretch out on rods above and below the body of
the telescope.
Many of the telescope's components are of modular design so
they may be removed and replaced in orbit by astronauts. Though
other spacecraft have received emergency repairs from Shuttle
crews, the HST is the first specifically designed for on-orbit
servicing.
The HST is made up of three major elements: the support
systems module, the optical telescope assembly, and the
scientific instruments.
The support systems module consists of the exterior
structure of the HST and the various systems that make it
possible for the optical telescope assembly and the scientific
instruments to do their job.
The foil-like material with which the telescope is wrapped
is actually multi-layer insulation, part of the telescope's
thermal control system. The metallic silver surface reflects
much of the direct sunlight which strikes the telescope to keep
it from overheating. Tiny heaters are attached to many telescope
components to warm them during the "eclipse" phase of orbit, when
in the Earth's shadow.
Electrical power for the HST is collected from the sun by
the European Space Agency's solar arrays. These two "wings"
contain 48,000 solar cells. They convert the sun's energy to
electricity during the portion of orbit that it is exposed to
sunlight. The power is stored in six Nickel Hydrogen batteries
to support the telescope during eclipse.
When conducting an observation, the space telescope is
rotated into the proper orientation, then pointed to the star it
is to view and locked in place, by the pointing control system.
This system is made up of a complex series of gyroscopes, star
trackers, reaction wheels and electromagnets. The gyroscopes and
reaction wheels are used to produce a coarse pointing toward the
star. That pointing is fine-tuned by star trackers called fine
guidance sensors. These sensors can locate and lock on to a
position in the sky to within 0.01 arc second and can hold that
pointing without varying more than 0.007 arc second for as long
as 24 hours.
Also included in the support systems module are the computer
which controls the overall spacecraft; high-gain antennas which
receive ground commands and transmit data back to Earth; the
electrical power system; the structure of the telescope itself
and its mechanical parts; and the safing system, designed to take
over control of the telescope to protect it from damage in case
of serious computer problems or loss of communication with ground
controllers.
The optical telescope assembly contains the two mirrors
which collect and focus light from the celestial objects being
studied. The 94-inch primary mirror is located near the center
of the HST. Made of precision-ground glass with an aluminum
reflecting surface, it is the smoothest large mirror ever made.
To reduce weight, the front and back plates are fused to a
honeycomb core. The 13-inch secondary mirror is located 16 feet
in front of the primary mirror. It is set far enough inside the
open end of the telescope to assure that stray light does not
interfere with the image being studied. In addition, three black
cylinders called baffles surround the path of light to block out
unwanted rays.
The two mirrors must remain in precise alignment for the
images they collect to be in focus. But the space environment is
a hostile one. The space telescope will experience wide
variations in temperature as it passes from the sun to shade
portions of its orbit. Expansion and contraction from the
temperature extremes could easily cause the mirrors to go out of
focus. Therefore, the mirrors are made of a special kind of
glass formulated to resist that expansion and contraction. The
telescope's insulation blankets and solar-powered heaters will
maintain them at 70 degrees Fahrenheit. In addition, the mirrors
are held a precise distance from one another by an extremely
strong but lightweight truss structure. The truss is made from
graphite epoxy, a material also chosen for its resistance to
expansion and contraction in temperature extremes.
During observations, light from a celestial source travels
through the tube of the telescope to the large primary mirror.
It is then reflected from the primary mirror back to the
secondary mirror. From there, the beam narrows and intensifies,
then passes through a hole in the center of the primary mirror to
a focal plane where the scientific instruments are located.
The Hubble Space Telescope's scientific instruments are the
Wide Field/Planetary Camera, the Faint Object Camera, the Goddard
High Resolution Spectrograph, the Faint Object Spectrograph, and
the High Speed Photometer. The fine guidance system, in addition
to being used for pointing, also performs scientific measurements
and is sometimes called the sixth scientific instrument. Mounted
on a focal plane almost five feet behind the primary mirror,
these scientific instruments will furnish astronomers with a wide
range of information about the stars and galaxies they study.
Each instrument is contained in a separate module and operates on
only 110 to 150 watts of power.
Science Instruments
The Wide Field/Planetary Camera (WF/PC) will be used to
investigate the age of the universe and search for new planetary
systems around young stars. It can compare near and far galaxies
and observe comets such as Halley's comet, which we previously
could only view every 75 years. As its name implies, the WF/PC
can be used in two different ways. In its wide-field mode, its
field of view will allow it to take pictures of dozens or even
hundreds of distant galaxies at once. In the planetary mode, it
will provide close-ups of all the planets in our solar system
except Mercury, which is too close to the sun for safe
pointing. The WF/PC can observe larger areas of the sky and more
different forms of light (from far ultraviolet to near infrared)
than any of the other science instruments. It will also produce
a greater volume of information for analysis than any of the
others.
Though its field of view is greater than that of any other
Hubble instrument, the "wide field" in this camera's name may be
a little misleading. Typical wide-field cameras at ground
observatories have a field of view of around 5 degrees. This
camera's is only 2.67 arc minutes. It would take a montage of
about 100 "wide-field" images to get a picture of the full
moon. However, the narrower field of view allows much better
resolution of far-away objects.
Although it will focus on an even smaller area than its
wide-field counterpart, the Faint Object Camera (FOC) will extend
the reach of the HST to its greatest possible distance and
produce its sharpest images. It will be able to photograph stars
five times farther away than is possible with telescopes located
on the ground. Many stars and galaxies, now barely perceptible,
will appear as blazing sources of light to the FOC. The camera
will intensify images to a brightness 100,000 times greater than
they were when received by the telescope. Then a television
camera will scan the intensified images and store them in the
camera's memory for transmission to the ground.
The FOC will be used to help determine the distance scale of
the universe, peer into the centers of globular star clusters,
photograph phenomena so faint they cannot be detected from the
ground, and study binary stars (two stars so close together they
appear to be one). It is part of the European Space Agency's
contribution to the HST program.
Two spectrographs are also included in the HST's group of
scientific instruments. A spectrograph does not take a
photograph of the image it sees. Rather, one could say it takes
its chemical "fingerprint." A spectrograph separates the
radiation received from an object according to wavelengths, much
as a prism splits visible light into colors. Every chemical
element produces its own individual pattern on a spectrogram. So
when the "fingerprint" of a certain element shows up on the
spectrum, scientists know that element is present in the object
being viewed. Scientists use spectrographs to determine the
chemical composition, temperature, pressure and density of the
objects they are viewing.
The Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) will be used to analyze
the properties of extremely faint objects in both visible and
ultraviolet light. It will be able to isolate individual light
sources from those surrounding them at very great distances. The
FOS is equipped with devices that can block out light at the
center of an image so the much fainter light around a bright
object can be viewed. It will study the chemical properties of
comets before they get close enough to the sun for their
chemistry to be altered, as well as probing to see what the
mysterious quasars are made of. This instrument will offer
comparisons of galaxies that are relatively near Earth with those
at great distances, helping researchers determine the history of
galaxies and the rate at which the universe is expanding.
The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph, though its work is
similar to that of its faint object companion, has a specialized
job. It is the only science instrument entirely devoted to
studies of ultraviolet light. Its detectors are designed to be
insensitive to visible light, since the ultraviolet emissions
from stars are often hidden by the much brighter visible
emissions. The "high resolution" in this instrument's name
refers to high spectral resolution, or the ability to study the
chemical fingerprints of objects in very great detail. The
combination of this spectral resolution with the high spatial
resolution of the cameras will allow scientists to determine the
chemical nature, temperature, and density of the gas between
stars. Its investigations will range from peering into the
center of far-away quasars to analyzing the atmospheres of
planets in our own solar system.
The High Speed Photometer, a relatively simple but precise
light meter, will measure the brightness of objects being
studied, as well as any variations in that brightness with time,
in both the visible and ultraviolet ranges. The photometer will
be able to study the smallest astronomical objects of any of the
telescope's instruments. One of the photometer's tasks will be
to look for clues that black holes exist in binary star
systems. Variations in brightness would occur as one star
revolves around the other. Irregularities in that variation
might indicate that matter is being lost to a black hole--an
object so dense that nothing, not even light, can escape from
it. The photometer will also provide astronomers with an
accurate map of the magnitude of stars.
The three fine guidance sensors serve a dual purpose. Two
of the sensors lock on to reference stars to point the telescope
to a precise position in the sky, then hold it there with a
remarkable degree of accuracy. The third sensor, in addition to
serving as a backup unit, will be used for astrometry -- the
science of measuring the angles between astronomical objects.
These measurements will be combined with information from other
instruments to prepare a more accurate distance scale of the
universe.
ORBITAL VERIFICATION
HST's Orbital Verification (OV) program was established to
verify that its subsystems are functioning properly after it has
been placed in Earth orbit. As an extremely complex, precise and
sensitive spacecraft, the HST will require an extensive period of
activation, adjustment and checkout before it is turned over to
the scientific community for their investigations.
This process is thorough and methodical. It has been carefully planned
to assure that the telescope systems are not damaged during activation and
that the telescope itself and its ground support systems are operating
properly. Engineers and scientists will control this process from the Space
Telescope Operations Control Center (STOCC), at Goddard Space Flight
Center, Greenbelt, Md.
Orbital verification is divided into two phases. The first includes
deployment of the Hubble Space Telescope, activation of its systems, and
preliminary pointing and focusing. This phase is referred to as OV/1. A
team from the Marshall Space Flight Center will be stationed at the
Goddard Space Flight Center to manage this portion of verification. The
Marshall manager in charge of this team, referred to as the Director of
Orbital Verification (DOV), will give the final go-ahead for each step of the
carefully-scripted process. Another Marshall team working in Huntsville
will provide technical engineering support from the Huntsville Operations
Support Center (HOSC). Actual commands will be sent to the telescope by
Goddard mission operations personnel.
This first stage of orbital verification, OV/1, has four major goals:
fine-tuning pointing accuracy, focusing the telescope, initially activating the
scientific instruments and evaluating the performance of both the telescope
and ground control systems.
The second phase, referred to as OV/2, will be managed by Goddard,
with continued technical support furnished by Marshall. Activation and
calibration of the various science instruments, modes, as well as continued
refinements in alignment and focusing, will be accomplished during this
period.
The OV program is scheduled to last for about 90 days from time of HST's
deployment with the time divided roughly equally between the two Orbital
Verification phases.
HST ACTIVATION IN DISCOVERY'S CARGO BAY
The Shuttle crew will open Discovery's cargo bay doors shortly after
entering orbit. Then they will wait several hours to allow the air inside the
telescope to vent into space, reducing the possibility of electrical arcing in
some components when the main power is supplied to HST. After the air
has had time to escape, the DOV will give the go-ahead for astronauts to
switch on the main power from Discovery's aft flight deck.
Orbital verification is now officially underway and from this point on,
the telescope will be under direct control of the STOCC at Goddard.
Next, the DOV will authorize Goddard mission operations to send an
initial series of commands to the telescope. The telescope's communication
system will respond by sending information about the telescope's condition
to the STOCC. Mission operations then will confirm the telescope has
received the commands. Simultaneously, the technical support team in the
HOSC will evaluate the data from the telescope, verify the spacecraft is
responding properly to the commands, and verify that it is in the proper
configuration following launch.
Next, the OV team will begin a process called "thermal safing."
Spacecraft are exposed to a huge range of temperatures in orbit, from
blazing heat in direct sunlight to subfreezing temperatures during the
portion of their orbit when the Earth is between the craft and the sun.
Multi-layer insulation protects the telescope from the higher temperatures,
but without a heating system, components left exposed to space could freeze
in a short period of time. Thermal safing activates the telescope's heaters
and thermostats to assure the components do not suffer from these external
temperature extremes.
Toward the end of the orbiter's first day in space, the verification team
will activate HST's onboard command computer and check its memory.
The system which takes automatic control of the telescope in the event of
loss of communications with the ground (Safe Mode system) also will be
activated. While the Shuttle crew sleeps, the night shift at the STOCC will
be at work, monitoring and managing systems and preparing for removal
of the telescope from the cargo bay on the second day of the mission.
RELEASE OF HST
During the morning of the second day, Discovery's crew will switch on
HST's internal power and deactivate the Orbiter-supplied power system.
The shuttle robot arm (Remote Manipulator System) will lift the Hubble
Space Telescope from the bay and suspend it above the crew cabin, with its
door pointed away from the sun.
The verification team will then send the signal to unfurl HST's solar
arrays almost immediately, so the telescope's six batteries can start
recharging. Next, the two high gain Tracking and Data Relay Satellite
System (TDRSS) antennas on the HST will be deployed.
Mission Specialists Bruce McCandless (MS1, EV1) and Kathy Sullivan
(MS3, EV2) will be standing by in their spacesuits ready to go outside the
spacecraft to manually provide these functions should the telescope fail to
respond correctly to ground commands.
Pointing systems will be activated to control the telescope's
orientation. Then, the remote manipulator arm will release its hold, and the
HST will float free in orbit. Following the telescope's release, the Shuttle
will back away into a parallel orbit to stand by for approximately two days in
case problems occur requiring corrective action by the astronauts.
APERTURE DOOR OPENING THROUGH END OF OV/1
The telescope's aperture door must be opened next. After the OV director
is confident the instruments are reading correctly and that the telescope is
pointed away from the sun, Hubble's light shield door will be commanded
open. Light from space will reach the telescope's precision-ground mirrors
for the first time.
The OV team will gradually adjust the position of the secondary mirror
until the images in the telescope's field of view become precise and sharp.
Several dozen exacting adjustments in the position of the mirror may be
required to further refine the focus and to compensate for the contraction of
the focal plane metering truss as desorption of water vapor occurs.
All of the individual components within each instrument require
specialized attention. Engineers at the STOCC will bring the instruments
up to full power and make sure they are operating properly. They also will
activate and evaluate the science computers which controls them. Actual
fine-tuning and calibration of the instruments is part of scientific
verification, but OV will not be over until the scientific instruments are
fully activated and ready for use.
About 6,200 specific items of information on the telescope's status,
called "telemetry points," are monitored by computer. Safe limits at any given
stage of activation for each individual telemetry point have been established.
Engineers from both the mission operations team at Goddard and the
Marshall technical support team at Huntsville will track systems in their
area of specialty. If any item does not perform within its predicted limits it
will be up to the OV team to determine if the problem is in the telescope
itself or in the ground system and then to decide how to resolve it. With a
system as unique and complex as the HST, it is almost inevitable that some
problems will arise. The purpose of OV is to catch them before they grow
into situations which could hamper telescope performance.
OV/2 FIRST WEEK (BEGINS ABOUT HST DAY 45)
Engineering tests and calibrations will be performed to continue
optimizing instrument settings and operations. Aperture calibrations to
determine their precise locations also will be started. This set of
refinements begins the process of aligning each instrument's specific
aperture (a few thousandths of an arc-second field of view) within that
instrument's portion of the telescope's focal-plane field-of-view. . Several
instruments will monitor the effects of the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA)
on instrument performance. This data will be used to decide the high
voltage turn-on sequences for the science instruments and to determine if
they will be able to continue data acquisition in the SAA.
The WF/PC will perform an activity to remove any contamination that
has possibly formed on the Charged Coupled Devices (CCD). Power will be
applied to the Thermal Electric Coolers (TEC) and the CCDs will be cooled
down to the proper operating temperature for science observations.
The FOC will perform its first external target observations on a star for
the purpose of aligning its apertures.
OV/2 SECOND WEEK
The STOCC team will continue monitoring the effects of the SAA on the
instruments. Instrument calibration and aperture alignment calibration
tests will be continued. The Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) will perform
its first external target observations of a star to align its aperture. The
spacecraft's ability to perform an accurate continuous scan will be
assessed.
OV/2 THIRD WEEK
Tests and calibrations for instrument setting and aperture alignment
will continue. The WF/PC starts a series of observations that will assist in
defining the sharpness of images and the ability of the camera to recognize
two closely spaced images.
The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) will perform its first
external target observations of a star to align its apertures.
Data will be taken which will be used to remove the non-uniformities
from WF/PCs images.
An HST thermal stability test will be performed to characterize the
telescope to establish the capability of the Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS) to
perform astrometry science.
OV/2 FOURTH WEEK
Tests and calibrations of the instruments continue. The FGS to FGS
alignment will be performed to provide more precise accuracy than was
achieved in OV/1. The alignment will improve the ability to establish the
proper science instrument (SI) calibrations. This activity, coupled with the
SI fine aperture alignment calibrations, which also are performed at this
time, give the spacecraft the calibration accuracy to start the more
stringent calibration activities.
These processes constitute a mid-point in what might be termed the
overall boresighting activities associated with determining the telescope
guidance system alignment, the telescope optical truss alignment,
individual instrument alignments and finally the overall system
alignment.
The first FOS spectrum will be performed during the fine aperture
alignment calibration and the spiral search target acquisition capability of
the GHRS will be verified.
OV/2 FIFTH WEEK THROUGH END OF OV/2
Tests and calibrations of instruments continue. The optical distortion in
the FGS used most often for astrometry science will be measured to provide
a baseline for this FGS and the ability to do science with FGSs at the
required accuracy.
The long slit spectrographic mode of the FOC will be tested for the first
time.
SCIENCE VERIFICATION
After OV is completed, further calibration of the instruments and
evaluations of the telescope's performance will be accomplished. This next
effort will be carried out through the Space Telescope Science Institute.
During this period, astronomers who contributed to the telescope's design
will be given an opportunity to use the telescope to begin conducting their
research. However, only after scientific verification is complete will the
telescope be ready to begin its full-scale investigations.
Science Verification (SV) begins the phase of using the now-aligned
telescope instruments to test their performance capabilities. These
performance tests use specific astronomical targets for each instrument
and will provide a gauge of the HST instrument's performance compared
with results derived from previous, ground-based, observations of the same
target.
The SV process is lengthy and is expected to last through early Fall,
1990. During this time, as specific instruments are tested and their
performance capabilities recorded, some science observations will begin to be
made even though the entire suite of instruments may not yet be declared
operational.
SCIENCE OPERATIONS
Once the Hubble Space Telescope and its instruments have been fully
checked out and the entire system including ground data and
computational systems declared operational, HST operations will be turned
over to the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). The institute is
located on the Homewood campus of the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Md.
Here, the science observing program has been developed, and it will be
from here that target selection and subsequent scientific observations using
HST will be performed. Although it is not necessary for the investigators to
be present at the STScI during their observations, space for visiting
scientists is available and a great number of astronomers are expected to
take up temporary residence during the time of their observations.
COMMAND, CONTROL, OBSERVATION AND DATA SYSTEMS
The principal components of the command, control, observation and data
flow for the Hubble Space Telescope are:
%HST itself with its onboard computers and data systems;
%The Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TDRS);
%The TDRS White Sands Ground Station (WSGT);
%Domestic communications satellites;
%The Goddard Network Operations Control Center (NOCC) at GSFC;
%NASA Communications System (NASCOM) at GSFC;
%The Space Telescope Operations Control Center (STOCC) at GSFC;
%The Space Telescope Data Capture Facility (STDCF) at GSFC;
%The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) at Baltimore;
%The Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF);
%And ultimately the astronomers and scientists who use the data.
TRACKING AND DATA RELAY SATELLITE SYSTEM
The conduit that connects HST to the science community is the Tracking
and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS). There are two operational TDRS
satellites, one situated over the Pacific Ocean (TDRS-W) and one over the
Atlantic (TDRS-E). Without the TDRS system, HST would not be able to
conduct its observations.
HST is the first user to simultaneously require both Multiple Access
(MA) and S-band Single Access (SSA) return services from TDRSS. TDRSS
will continually transfer engineering data through the MA system to the
STOCC at Goddard. This service will be provided for up to 85 minutes of
every HST orbit that HST is in view of one of the TDRSS satellites.
TDRSS will also provide SSA forward and return services each orbit.
Realtime science and readouts of the HST onboard recorders will be
collected through the SSA return service. The SSA forward service will
allow the 12,000 commands executed by HST daily to be packaged and
transmitted to Hubble telescope's two onboard command computers
controlling the spacecraft.
HST will transmit almost three billion bits of information through the
TDRSS each day. This information is received at White Sands and
forwarded to the Goddard Data Capture Facility where it receives initial
processing.
The data is then forwarded to the Space Telescope Science Institute.
There the science data is processed, calibrated and archived. Copies of the
archive tapes are provided to the European Coordinating Facility at
Noordwick, the Netherlands. American and European astronomers take
the data from either the Institute or the ECF back to their home institutions
for detailed processing and subsequent analysis.
The White Sands Ground Terminal, located at White Sands, New
Mexico, uses a pair of 16-foot (4.9 meter) diameter antennas to
communicate with the TDRS-W and TDRS-E in either S- or K-bands or both.
It uses separate antennas to receive and transmit the TDRSS data to other
NASA controls centers using leased domestic communications satellites.
SPACE TELESCOPE OPERATIONS CONTROL CENTER
The STOCC is located on the campus of the Goddard Space Flight Center
and operates as a dedicated spacecraft control center. It directly
communicates, through NASCOM and WSGT and the TDRS system, to the
Hubble telescope.
The STOCC contains a large number of redundant independent
computer systems. Each of the seven computer systems operates a portion
of the complex scheduling, configuring and commanding system which is
required to manage and run the HST. Separate systems located at the
STScI work directly with STOCC systems during realtime science
operations with the HST.
Within the STOCC is a separate sub-control center called the Mission
Operations Center (MOC). The MOC integrates the observing schedule for
each of HST's five instruments into a master schedule which includes
TDRS system availability. The MOC then originates the commands which
direct the movement of the HST for coverage of the various scientific
targets.
SPACE TELESCOPE SCIENCE INSTITUTE
The Institute is both the starting point for observations and the ending
point for the data from those observations. In preparing an observing
calendar for HST, STScI planners arrange schedules to maximize the
science gain from the telescope. In all, STScI schedulers must partition
some 30,000 observations within the approximately 3,000 hours available in
any given 52-week observing cycle.
To aid in this scheduling, the Institute staff developed a tool (Science
Planning Interactive Knowledge Environment - SPIKE) to prepare long-
range calendars. What SPIKE does is to portray graphically the various
constraints imposed by HST's science instruments, the orbital parameters
of the spacecraft, the allocation of observing time for the particular
observation permitted under the peer review system and any special
requirements of the observer. SPIKE incorporates statistical and artificial
intelligence tools which then allows a best fit for the observation and the
available time.
The results of this planning are then fed into the Science Planning and
Scheduling System (SPSS). Here a second-by-second timeline is computer
generated to describe every detail of HST's science operation. The SPSS
then assembles the requests for commands which will be executed by the
telescope's onboard computer systems to carryout the observation. The
product of the SPSS is called a Science Mission Specifications file. This
product is then transmitted from the Institute to Goddard where it passes
through yet another computer system which converts the requests into the
actual binary code which will be uplinked to the spacecraft.
EUROPEAN COORDINATING FACILITY
Astronomers will also have access to HST data via the Data Archive and
Distribution System (DADS). The basic concept for this system is similar to
that used for the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) and European
Exosat projects. As in these other projects, all raw and calibrated HST
data, upon receipt at the STScI, will be placed in the archives and will
become generally available once the original observer's proprietary period
of access (normally a period of one year) has expired. A copy of the HST
data archives will be transmitted and kept at the European Coordinating
Facility (ST-ECF) where ESA Member-State astronomers will have full
access to it. The ECF is co-located at the European Southern Observatory
(ESO) located near Munich, Germany.
HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE SPECIFICATIONS
Main Mirror diameter 94.5 inches (2.4 meters)
Main Mirror weight 1,825 pounds (821 kilograms)
Main Mirror coating aluminum with 0.025 magnesium
fluoride over 70 % at hydrogen Lyman-Alpha
Main Mirror reflectivity 70 % at hydrogen Lyman-Alphawave
lengths and greater than 85 % at
visible wavelengths
Optical focal ratio f/24
Spacecraft length 43.5 feet (13.3 meters)
Spacecraft diameter
(with solar array stowed) 14.0 feet (4.3 meters)
(solar arrays deployed) 40.0 feet (12.0 meters)
Solar array size & power 7.9 by 39.9 feet (2.4 by 12.1 meters)
each average 2,400 watts electricity
production
Spacecraft weight 24,000 pounds (11,000 kilograms)
Orbital brightness -3 magnitude (Venus is -4.5, Jupiter is
-2.3, the Moon is -12.8)
Fine Guidance Measurement of position of a star to
System Capabilities within 0.002 arc-seconds
FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF HST OPERATIONS
Information and command flow from start to finish of an HST
observation is one of the most complex and interactive activities NASA has
yet undertaken in the realm of science operations.
Proposals first go the the Science Institute for review and selection.
Selected proposals are then transformed into requirements against HST
instrumentation and observation time. These requirements are then
matched with available spacecraft capabilities and time allocations.
During this process, a parallel activity matches the observation with
necessary Rguide starsS to serve as guidance system targets during the
observation. This process matches the field of view of the observation and
its target with available stars from the Guide Star Catalog(GSC). Following
this process a science observation schedule is developed and sent to
Goddard.
At Goddard, the science observations schedules are matched with
spacecraft schedules and network tracking and data schedules. This
combined schedule is then converted into HST computer commands and
then sent to the the Payload Operations Control Center. From there the
commands travel through the NASA communications network to White
Sands and then through the TDRS system to the Hubble Space Telescope.
HST's onboard computer then executes the command sequence, moving
the spacecraft into position, turning on appropriate instruments and data
recording equipment and executing the observations. Data from the
observations is then sent back through the TDRS and NASA
communications system to Goddard. At Goddard the data is first captured
in an interim data storage facility and from there is transmitted to the
Institute for additional processing. Following the Institute's initial
processing the data is then calibrated and both archived and distributed to
the scientist whose observations it represents.
In tandem with these activities, the Goddard STOCC maintains an
updated computer file on both the performance of the Hubble spacecraft and
its exact orbital parameters. These are critical for the proper development
of the command sequences and for inertial reference.
SCIENCE QUESTIONS HST WILL HELP ANSWER
When HST is declared operational, sometime in the fall of 1990 if the
verification activities are accomplished satisfactorily, the astronomy team
associated with the project will be able to finally begin their full-scale
attack on some of astronomy and cosmology's toughest questions.
These questions are much the same fundamental questions which the
Renaissance philosophers, the Arab and before them the Egyptian and
Mayan astrologer/astronomers faced. They are simple questions: How big
is the universe? How old is the universe? Newer, but still simple, questions
are based on our understanding of Edwin P. Hubble's pioneering work and
that of the Russian mathematician Alexander Friedman and the
corroborating evidence from Arno Penzais and Robert Wilson. These
questions include will the universe expand forever? What is the large scale
structure of the universe? And, is the universe homogeneous on a large
scale. More difficult but allied questions pertain to why normal matter
(baryons) exist at all. Why is matter seemingly smoothly distributed
through the universe? How did structure (galaxies) arise from a smooth
homogenous fireball (big bang)?
Some of these cosmological questions give rise to further, more precise,
questions. What is the Hubble Constant? Today's astronomical
observations give numbers which vary by a factor of two. The Hubble
Constant is a calculation of the rate at which space is expanding and is
expressed in kilometers per second per megaparsec (3.26 million light
years). Another question facing today's astronomers is what is the age of
the universe. This is calculated by taking the inverse of the Hubble
Constant . Today's numbers vary from 10 to 20 billion years of age.
What is the Deceleration Parameter? This is a measure of whether the
distant galaxies are receding at a slower rate than nearby (newer) galaxies
and would indicate a finite universe if the total pull of the matter in the
universe were sufficient to create a large Penzias - in effect slowing down
the expansion and perhaps ultimately causing a recollapse.
The expansion of the universe is controlled by the amount of matter per
unit volume (density). If the density is high enough, the expansion of the
universe will eventually slow and reverse. If the density is not high enough
then the universe will expand forever. The measure of the density therefore
becomes another critical element in our understanding the evolution of the
universe.
Hubble Space Telescope will contribute to answering these questions in a
variety of key observations. HST will be able to directly measure Cepheid
Variable stars out to 30 million light years. These stars are the "mileposts"
by which distance is measured over vast distances. An accurate measure
of Cepheid Variables out to the distance of the Virgo Supercluster (2,500
galaxies amassed together) will greatly extend reliable distance
measurements more than ten times than can be routinely done from
ground observations. HST will find Cepheid stars in a sample of about 50
galaxies to arrive at an accurate measurement of the Hubble Constant.
The Hubble telescope also will enable astronomers to determine the age
of the universe by accurately measuring stars at distances much greater
than is now possible. Current cosmology has star formation occurring at a
period about one billion years (or so) after the Big Bang when the
temperature of the universe cooled sufficiently to allow atomic hydrogen to
form and begin condensing into stars. An accurate measurement of the
ages of the oldest stars will set a minimum age for the universe and
therefore help constrain the Hubble Constant.
Because HST is ideally suited for the task of resolving faint galaxies at
very high red shifts (a measure of recessional velocity and therefore
distance), it will also help in determining the deceleration rate of distant
galaxies. Before this technique can be applied, though, HST will have to
add to our knowledge about such distance galaxies since current
observations of these are so limited. Because such distant galaxies formed
much longer ago than nearby galaxies, their intrinsic luminosity and color
are not well understood which means they cannot reliably be used at the
present as a Rmilepost.S However, HST observations will contribute to the
intrinsic understanding of these galaxies and subsequent observations
based on new theories will allow potential use of these distant galaxies as
measuring devices for studies of deceleration.
By studying the motions of galaxies within clusters out to a distance of
nearly 100 million light years, HST astronomers will be able to infer the
mass of galaxies - both the light matter (stellar composition) and any dark
matter components. The resulting density measurements can then be
scaled up to compute the mass of the universe as a whole.
Acquiring answers to cosmological questions are a major reason for the
development and flight of the Hubble Space Telescope. There are, though, a
great many questions in the realm of astronomy and astrophysics which
HST will be addressing as well. A primary task for HST will be to trace the
evolution of galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Since HST will be able to
survey a volume of space nearly 100 times larger than can be surveyed with
comparable resolution from the ground, HST will help give us a picture of
what galaxies were like when the universe was only 35 percent of its
present age.
HST's high resolution will allow a survey for extra galactic black holes.
The imaging systems may be able to provide pictures of an accretion disk in
nearby galaxies and HST spectrometers will enable us to measure the
velocities of infalling gas thereby gauging the mass of suspected black
holes.
Hubble telescope's instruments should enable a breakthrough in our
understanding of synchrotron jets which extend for hundreds of thousands
of light years from the center of active galactic cores. For the first time,
these jets will be seen in ultraviolet light. These observations will be
matched with comparable resolution views taken with radio astronomy
observations.
Some of the questions pertaining to galaxies, quasi-stellar objects
(quasars or QSOs) and active galactic nuclei include:
%How soon after the Big Bang did galaxies form?
%How do galaxies evolve?
%What are the dynamics of galaxies in clusters?
%Do galaxies harbor massive black holes?
%What is the dark matter in a galaxy and how is it distributed?
%How important are galactic collisions in galaxy formation?
%What is the nature of starburst phenomena?
%What is the engine which powers quasars?
%What fuels the quasar engine?
%Are there new physics to be found powering the QSO engine?
%Do quasars represent a normal stage in galactic evolution?
Stellar physics questions to be addressed by HST include studying white
dwarfs. White dwarf stars are keys to our understanding the stages of late
stellar evolution. HST will aid in our present understanding of this stage in
a star's life and answer questions such as, can stars re-ignite after having
ejected much of their mass late in their life.
At the other end of a star's life, HST will image circumstellar disks in
star-forming regions to see how stellar activity affects the disks and
perhaps deduce what conditions are right for planetary system formation.
Solar physics and solar system evolution are major fields of investigation
for the HST astronomy team. Some of the questions HST will help answer
in these fields are:
%What is the precise sequence of steps in star formation?
%What determines the rate of star formation?
%How common are jets and disk structures in other stars?
%What is the mechanism that triggers nova-like outbursts in double stars?
%What are the progenitor stars to supernovas?
%Do circumstellar disks show evidence of planet building?
%Do planets exist about other stars?
%How abundant are other solar systems?
%What is the meteorology of the outer planets and how does it change over time?
%What is the meteorology of Mars & what triggers the global summer dust storms?
%How do the surface patterns of Pluto change over time?
HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE PROGRAM HISTORY
Long before mankind had the ability to go into space, astronomers
dreamed of placing a telescope above Earth's obscuring atmosphere. In the
heydays of the Roaring Twenties, German rocket scientist and thinker
Hermann Oberth described the advantages a telescope orbiting above Earth
would have over those based in observatories on the ground.
Scientific instruments installed on early rockets, balloons and satellites
beginning in the late 1940s produced enough exciting scientific revelations
to hint at how much remained to be discovered. In the technology era
spawned by the end of World War II, Dr. Lyman Spitzer, Jr., an
astronomer at Princeton University, advanced the concept of an orbiting
instrument of the Mount Wilson Observatory.
The first official mention of an optical space telescope came in 1962,
just four years after NASA was established, when a National Academy of
Sciences study group recommended the development of a large space
telescope as a logical extension of the U.S. space program.
This recommendation was repeated by another study group in 1965.
Shortly afterwards the National Academy of Sciences established a
committee, headed by Spitzer, to define the scientific objectives for a
proposed Large Space Telescope with a primary mirror of about 10 feet (or
120 inches).
Meanwhile, the first such astronomical observatory--the Orbiting
Astronomical Observatory-1, already had been launched successfully in
1968 and was providing important new information about the galaxy with
its ultraviolet spectrographic instrument.
In 1969 the Spitzer group issued its report, but very little attention was
paid to it by the astronomy community. At that time quasars, pulsars and
other exotic cosmic phenomena were being discovered and many
astronomers felt that time spent working towards a space telescope would
be less productive than their existing time in ground-based observatories.
A 1972 National Academy of Sciences study reviewed the needs and
priorities in astronomy for the remainder of that decade and again
recommended a large orbiting optical telescope as a realistic and desirable
goal. At that same time, NASA had convened a small group of
astronomers to provide scientific guidance for several teams at the Goddard
and Marshall Space Flight Centers who were doing feasibility studies for
space telescopes. NASA also named the Marshall center as lead center for
a space telescope program.
NASA ESTABLISHES A TELESCOPE OFFICE
NASA established in 1973 a small scientific and engineering steering
committee to determine which scientific objectives would be feasible for a
proposed space telescope. The science team was headed by Dr. C. Robert
O'Dell, University of Chicago, who viewed the project as a chance to
establish not just another spacecraft but a permanent orbiting observatory.
In 1975 the European Space Agency became involved with the project.
The O'Dell group continued their worked through 1977, when NASA
selected a larger group of 60 scientists from 38 institutions to participate in
the design and development of the proposed Space Telescope. In 1978
Congress appropriated funds for the development of the Space Telescope.
NASA assigned responsibility for design, development and construction
of the space telescope to the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville,
Ala. Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md., was chosen to lead the
development of the scientific instruments and the ground control center.
Marshall selected two primary contractors to build the Hubble Space
Telescope. Perkin-Elmer Corporation in Danbury, Connecticut, was
chosen over Itek and Kodak to develop the optical system and guidance
sensors. (Though Kodak was later contracted by P-E to provide a backup
main mirror blank, which it did and which is now in storage at Kodak,
Rochester, N.Y.) Lockheed Missiles and Space Company of Sunnyvale,
California, was selected over Martin Marietta and Boeing to produce the
protective outer shroud and the support systems module (basic spacecraft)
for the telescope, as well as to assemble and integrate the finished product.
The European Space Agency agreed to furnish the spacecraft solar
arrays, one of the scientific instruments and manpower to support the
Space Telescope Science Institute in exchange for 15% of the observing time
and access to the data from the other instruments. Goddard scientists were
selected to develop one instrument, and scientists at the California Institute
of Technology, the University of California at San Diego and the University
of Wisconsin were selected to develop three three other instruments.
The Goddard Space Flight Center normally exercises mission control of
unmanned satellites in Earth orbit. Because the Hubble Space Telescope is
so unique and complex, two new facilities were established under the
direction of Goddard, dedicated exclusively to scientific and engineering
operation of the telescope. The facilities are the Space Telescope Operations
Control Center at Goddard and the Space Telescope Science Institute, on
the grounds of the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
The Space Telescope Operations Control Center, or STOCC as it is called,
is located in a wing of Building 14 on the Goddard campus. It was
established in 1985 as the ground control facility for the telescope. The
scientific observing schedule developed by the Science Institute will be
translated into computer commands by the control center and relayed via
the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System to the orbiting telescope. In
turn, observation data will be received at the center and translated into a
format usable by the Science Institute. The control center also will
maintain a constant watch over the health and safety of the satellite.
The Space Telescope Science Institute was dedicated in 1983 in a new
facility near the Astronomy and Physics Departments of Hopkins. It will
perform the science planning for the telescope. Scientists there will select
observing proposals from various astronomers, coordinate research, and
generate the telescope's observing agenda. They also will archive and
distribute results of the investigations. The Institute is operated under
contract to NASA by the Association of Universities for Research in
Astronomy (AURA) to insure academic independence. It operates under
administrative direction of the Goddard center.
TELESCOPE CONSTRUCTION TAKES DECADE TO ACCOMPLISH
Construction and assembly of the space telescope was a painstaking
process which spanned almost a decade. The precision-ground mirror was
completed in 1981, casting and cooling of the blank by Corning Glass took
nearly a year . The optical assembly (primary and secondary mirrors,
optical truss and fine guidance system) was delivered for integration into
the satellite in 1984. The science instruments were delivered for testing at
the Goddard center in 1983. Assembly of the entire spacecraft at the
Lockheed Sunnyvale facility was completed in 1985.
Launch of the Hubble Space Telescope was originally scheduled for 1986.
It was delayed during the Space Shuttle redesign which followed the
Challenger accident. Engineers used the interim period to subject the
telescope to intensive testing and evaluation, assuring the greatest possible
reliability. An exhaustive series of end-to-end tests involving the Science
Institute, Goddard, the Tracking and Data Relay system and the spacecraft
were performed during this time, resulting in overall improvements in
system reliability.
The telescope was shipped by Air Force C5A from Lockheed, Sunnyvale,
to the Kennedy Space Center, Florida in October 1989.
From 1978 through launch, the Space Telescope Program has cost $1.5
billion for the development, design, test and integration of the Hubble Space
Telescope and associated spacecraft elements, $300 million for the science
and engineering operations which have been supporting both the spacecraft
development and the ground science operations at Goddard and the Space
Telescope Science Institute, and $300 million for the design, development
and testing of servicing equipment to maintain the Telescope's 15-year
expected lifetime.
The Hubble Space Telescope was designed specifically to allow extensive
maintenance in orbit. This is the most practical way to keep the equipment
functioning and current during its 15 years or more in space with a
minimum of down time. Some of the components such as batteries and
solar arrays have a life expectancy shorter than 15 years and will need to be
replaced from time to time. New technology will make it possible to design
more sophisticated scientific instruments over the years. Several new
generation instruments are already under development. In-orbit servicing
allows worn parts to be replaced and new instruments to be substituted for
the original equipment without the great expense, risk and delay of
bringing the telescope back to Earth.
MODULAR DESIGN ENHANCES MAINTENANCE AND UPGRADABILITY
The modular design of many space telescope components means that
units may be pulled out and a replacement plugged in without disturbing
other systems. Doors on the exterior of the telescope allow astronauts
access to these modular components, called Orbital Replacement Units.
Handrails and portable foot restraints make it easier for them to move about
in the weightless environment while working on the telescope. A special
carrier has been designed to fit in the orbiter's cargo bay to hold
replacement parts and tools.
Astronauts will visit the space telescope every three to five years on
servicing missions. In case of an emergency, special contingency rescue
missions have been partially developed and could be mounted between the
scheduled visits.
On servicing missions, the Space Shuttle will rendezvous with the
orbiting telescope. Astronauts will use the Shuttle's remote manipulator
arm to pull in the observatory and mount it on a maintenance platform in
the orbiter's payload bay. Astronauts will don space suits and go out into
the bay to complete required maintenance. They may change out batteries
or solar arrays, a computer, one of the scientific instruments, or any of the
more than 50 units that can be replaced in orbit. The Shuttle also may be
used to carry the telescope back to its original orbital altitude if
atmospheric drag has caused it to descend.
Once the maintenance is finished, the telescope will be released once
more as a free flyer. A ground team reactivation will then take place so the
telescope again can resume its exploration tasks.
PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS COME FROM ALL OVER
The Hubble Space Telescope is the product of not just one group or
agency, but a cooperative effort of many dedicated people from across the
United States and around the world. Following is a brief summary of the
institutions that are a part of the Hubble Space Telescope Program and
their contributions:
NASA Headquarters Astrophysics Division, Office of Space Science and
Applications, Washington, D.C.: Overall direction of the Hubble Space
Telescope Program.
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama: Overall
management for Hubble Space Telescope project, including supervision of
design, development, assembly, pre-launch checkout and orbital
verification.
Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland: Development of the
scientific instruments, day-to-day operation of the telescope through its
Space Telescope Operations Control Center and oversight of the Space
Telescope Science Institute on the campus of Johns Hopkins University in
Baltimore, Maryland.
Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas: Orbiter and crew services
during deployment and maintenance missions.
Kennedy Space Center, Florida: Pre-launch processing and Space
Shuttle launch support, assuring safe delivery of the telescope to orbit.
European Space Agency: Provision of the solar arrays and Faint Object
Camera, operational support at the Science Institute and maintenance of a
data distribution and archive facility in Europe; in return ESA is allocated
15 percent of telescope observing time.
Universities whose staff members have made major contributions to the
program include:
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena: Wide Field/Planetary
Camera, Dr. James Westphal, Principal Investigator;
University of California at San Diego, La Jolla: Faint Object
Spectrograph, Dr. Richard Harms, Principal Investigator (now with
Applied Research Corp., Landover, Maryland);
University of Colorado, Boulder: Dr. John C. Brandt, Principal
Investigator for the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph.
University of Texas, Austin: astrometry (using the Fine Guidance
System), Dr. William H. Jefferys, Principal Investigator;
University of Wisconsin, Madison: High Speed Photometer, Dr. Robert
Bless, Principal Investigator.
HUNTSVILLE OPERATIONS SUPPORT CENTER HST TECHNICAL SUPPORT TEAM
A team of technical experts at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center,
Huntsville, Ala., will monitor the Hubble Space Telescope's engineering
performance during its deployment and activation to confirm whether
ground commands sent to the telescope have had their desired result. They
will help identify problems which may arise, analyze them and recommend
solutions.
The Hubble Space Telescope Technical Support Team is composed of
representatives of the agencies and companies which designed and built
the space telescope. They will be stationed in Marshall's Huntsville
Operations Support Center during orbital verification.
The data that the telescope sends back to Earth (called "telemetry") will
be simultaneously monitored by engineers in the Space Telescope
Operations Control Center at Goddard and by the technical support team in
Huntsville. The Goddard group will use this information to track progress
in implementing the verification schedule and to make short-term
operational decisions. The Marshall team will track the telescope's status
and engineering performance.
Support Team Responsibilities - Technical support team engineers have
three major assignments:
First, they will monitor telescope telemetry, tracking several thousand
engineering measurements to determine the ongoing status of the HST and
to confirm whether the telescope has responded properly to ground
commands sent from the control center at Goddard. With the information
they receive, they can identify problems if they arise.
Second, they will use their in-depth knowledge of the telescope and its
systems to analyze problems and recommend ways to resolve them. This
will include problems identified at Goddard and assigned to the Huntsville
team for analysis, as well as those discovered by the technical support
group and reported to the orbital verification management team at the
Space Telescope Operations Control Center at Goddard.
Third, they will evaluate the performance of the space telescope to
determine its true capabilities and project its future performance.
Discipline Teams - Instead of being grouped by agencies and companies,
the technical support team will be organized by specialty into ten discipline
or subsystem teams. Team members will include civil service and
contractor employees with expert knowledge of their particular Hubble
Space Telescope subsystem.
Each contractor/government team will be led by a NASA engineer
charged with accomplishing the three support team goals: problem
analysis and resolution, evaluation of current performance and
development of long-range predictions for the capabilities of the telescope
system. Engineering specialists representing the companies which
developed the system will also be part of the team. Each group will be
assigned a conference work area where they can monitor current or past
telescope telemetry and complete problem analyses.
Engineering Console Room - The "eyes and ears" of the technical support
team will be provided by personnel in the engineering console room.
Engineers stationed there from each discipline team will continuously
monitor "real-time" telemetry (that currently being sent from the
telescope). The current value of hundreds of different measurements
concerning their assigned subsystem will be displayed on their computer
screens. Some types of measurements to be tracked are temperature,
velocity, time, position, current and voltage.
Each measurement has been assigned a safe limit for every stage of
activation. For instance, at a stated time, a designated heat sensor should
register a specified temperature. If the measurement begins to move
outside its safe range, the screen it appears on will flash yellow to indicate
the problem. If the limits are passed even further, the screen will flash in
red. About 200 measurements may be identified as critical for any point in
activation or operation. When these approach the limits, a message will
flash on all the terminals, regardless of discipline.
Method of Operation - Computer screens will be monitored
simultaneously from the Goddard missions operations room and the
Huntsville conference work areas and engineering console room. A
situation requiring attention may be first detected at any of these locations.
Once a problem is identified, the discipline teams will go into action to
track down its cause. First, they will determine if there is a real
malfunction in the telescope or if the computer software is showing an
erroneous measurement. If the problem is with the telescope itself, an
approach to resolving it will be formulated between the management group
at Goddard and the technical support team.
Contingency plans, designed in advance for dealing with possible
problems, will be reviewed. Discipline teams will analyze current and past
data from the telescope, as well as their design records. Based on that
research and their in-depth knowledge of the system, the discipline teams
will recommend a solution to systems engineers in the action center. The
action center management group will evaluate and consolidate the
recommendation and pass it on to the orbital verification management
team at Goddard.
Technical Support Team Participants - The 175-member Hubble Space
Telescope Technical Support Team is made up of personnel from the
Marshall Space Flight Center, Lockheed Missiles and Space Company,
Hughes Danbury Optical Systems (formerly Perkin-Elmer) and the
European Space Agency.
HST CONTRACTORS AND SUBCONTRACTORS
Optical Telescope Assembly Hughes Danbury Optical Systems
and Fine Guidance Sensors Danbury, Conn.
Primary Mirror blank Corning Glass Works
Corning, N.Y.
Mirror Metering Truss Boeing Airplane Co.
Seattle, Wash.
Support Systems Module Lockheed Missiles & Space Co.
(spacecraft) and integration Sunnyvale, Calif.
Solar Arrays British Aerospace Public Ltd. Co
Bristol, England, U.K.
Science Instrument Command Fairchild Space Company
and Data Handling Computer Germantown, Md.
Wide Field & Planetary Camera NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Pasadena, Calif.
CCD arrays for WF/PC Texas Instruments
Dallas, Texas
Faint Object Camera Dornier GmbH
Friedrichshafen, FRG
Faint Object Spectrograph Martin Marietta Corp.
Denver, Colo.
Goddard High Resolution Ball Aerospace
Spectrograph Boulder, Colo.
High Speed Photometer University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisc.
Space Telescope Operations Lockheed Missile & Space Co.
Control Center Sunnyvale, Calif.
Ford Aerospace & Comm. Co.
College Park, Md.
Network and Mission Bendix Field Engineering
Operations Support Columbia, Md.
Science Operations Ground TRW, Inc.
Systems Redondo Beach, Calif.
Computer system software Computer Sciences Corp.
Silver Spring, Md.
Light Shade, Magnetic Bendix Corporation
Torquer & Sensing System, Greenbelt, Md.
Safemode Electronics
PROTEIN CRYSTAL GROWTH EXPERIMENT
The Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) payload aboard STS-31 is a
continuing series of experiments leading toward major benefits in
biomedical technology. These experiments are expected to improve food
production and lead to innovative new drugs to combat cancer, AIDS, high
blood pressure, organ transplant rejection, rheumatoid arthritis and many
other medical conditions.
Protein crystals, like inorganic crystals such as quartz, are structured
in a regular pattern. With a good crystal, roughly the size of a grain of
table salt, scientists are able to study the protein's molecular architecture.
Determining a protein crystal's molecular shape is an essential step in
several phases of medical research. Once the three-dimensional structure
of a protein is known, it may be possible to design drugs that will either
block or enhance the protein's normal function within the body or other
organisms. Though crystallographic techniques can be used to determine
a protein's structure, this powerful technique has been limited by problems
encountered in obtaining high-quality crystals well ordered and large
enough to yield precise structural information.
Protein crystals grown on Earth are often small and flawed. The
problem associated with growing these crystals is analogous to filling a
sports stadium with fans who all have reserved seats. Once the gate opens,
people flock to their seats and in the confusion, often sit in someone else's
place. On Earth, gravity-driven convection keeps the molecules crowded
around the "seats" as they attempt to order themselves. Unfortunately,
protein molecules are not as particular as many of the smaller molecules
and often are content to take the wrong places in the structure.
As would happen if you let the fans into the stands slowly, microgravity
allows the scientist to slow the rate at which molecules arrive at their seats.
Since the molecules have more time to find their spot, fewer mistakes are
made, creating more uniform crystals.
Protein crystal growth experiments were first carried out by the
investigating team during STS 51-D in April 1985. These prototype
experiments were flown four times and were primarily designed to test
vapor diffusion techniques and sample handling apparatus.
The STS-26 PCG was the first controlled or systematic experiment to
grow useful crystals by vapor diffusion in microgravity within a thermal
control enclosure -- the Refrigerator/Incubator Module (R/IM). This
equipment was also flown aboard STS-29 and STS-32. Crystals were grown
at cold temperatures for the first time on STS-32, demonstrating the
potential for using longer flights to process certain proteins.
Results from these experiments have been encouraging, with high
quality crystals developing from several of the samples flown. Generally,
these crystals are of exceptional size and/or quality when compared to
control samples grown in gravity.
During the STS-31 mission, 60 different PCG experiments will be
conducted simultaneously using 12 different proteins. These proteins are:
*Isocitrate Lyase -- a target enzyme for fungicides. Better
understanding of this enzyme should lead to more potent fungicdes to treat
serious crop diseases such as rice blast.
*Porcine Pancreatic Phospholipase A2 -- an enzyme associated with
many human disease states including rheumatoid arthritis and septic
shock. Successful structure analyses of phospholipase crystal may lead to
development of drugs to treat these conditions.
*Human Gamma Interferon (GIF-D) -- an enzyme which stimulates the
body's immune system and is used clinically in the treatment of cancer.
*Human Serum Transferrin -- the major iron transport protein in
human serum. It transports iron from storage sites to hemoglobin
synthesizing red blood cells and also is a necessary component in media for
cell growth.
*Porcine Pancreatic Elastase -- an enzyme associated with the
degratation of lung tissue in people suffering from emphysema. A better
understanding of the enzyme's structure will be useful in studying the
causes of this debilitating disease.
*Type IV Collagenase -- an enzyme obtained from snake venom
(haemmioragic), it is related to collagenase secreted by invasive cancer
cells.
*Canavalin -- the major storage protein of leguminous plants such as
beans and peas, and a major source of dietary protein for humans and
domestic animals.
*Malic Enzyme -- an enzyme isolated from nematodes. Characterizing
the structural differences between it and the mammalian version could to
the development of an anti-parasite drug.
*Anti-HPR Fab fragment/Fab -- the detailed structure would provide a
picture of an antibody binding site which recognizes a bacterial "foreign"
protein antigen. By learning what antibody binding sites look like, we may
better understand how antibodies function in the immune system.
*Factor D -- an enzyme necessary for activation of a part of the immune
system which plays an important role in host defense against pathogens.
*Turkey/Quail Lysozyme -- Sugars are often found associated with
proteins, and these sugar/protein interactions are fundamental in all the
processes of living organisms. However, very little is known about these
interactions.
*Carboxyl Ester Hydrolase -- an enzyme which catalyzes the breakdown
of carboxylic acid esters like those found in fats. Understanding how this
enzyme functions will be valuable in learning how fats and related
molecules are made and metabolized.
Shortly after achieving orbit, a crewmember will combine each of the
protein solutions with other solutions containing a precipitation agent to
form small droplets on the ends of double-barreled syringes positioned in
small chambers. Water vapor will diffuse from each droplet to a solution
absorbed in a porous reservoir that lines each chamber.
The loss of water by this vapor diffusion process will produce conditions
in the droplets that cause protein crystals to grow. The samples will be
processed at 22 degrees C, as on STS-26 and STS-29.
Just prior to descent, the mission specialist will photograph the droplets
in the trays. Then all the droplets and any protein crystals grown will be
drawn back into the syringes. The syringes then will be resealed for
reentry. Upon landing, the hardware will be turned over to the
investigating team for analysis.
The PCG experiments are sponsored by NASA's Office of
Commercial Programs and the Microgravity Science and Applications
Division with management provided through Marshall Space Flight Center
(MSFC), Huntsville, Ala. Richard E. Valentine, is mission manager and
Blair Herron is PCG experiment manager for Marshall.
Dr. Charles E. Bugg, director of the Center for Macromolecular
Crystallography, a NASA-sponsored Center for the Commercial
Development of Space located at the University of Alabama-Birmingham
(UAB), is lead investigator for the PCG research team.
The STS-31 industry, university and government PCG research
investigators include DuPont de Nemours & Co.; U.S. Naval Research
Laboratory; BioCryst, Inc.; Schering Plough Corp.; Georgia Institute of
Technology; Vertex Pharmaceuticals; Texas A&M University; University of
California at Riverside; The Upjohn Co.; National Research Council of
Canada; UAB Center for Macromolecular Crystallography; Laboratoire de
Cristallographie et Cristallisation de Macromoles Biologiques-Faculte
Nord, Marseille, France; and Eastman Kodak Co.
INVESTIGATIONS INTO POLYMER MEMBRANE PROCESSING
The Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) is a
middeck payload developed by the Battelle Advanced Materials Center for
the Commercial Development of Space (CCDS), Columbus, Ohio.
Sponsored by NASA's Office of Commercial Programs, the Battelle CCDS
was formed in November 1985 to conduct research into commercially
important advanced materials such as polymers, catalysts, electronic
materials and superconductors. The IPMP marks the beginning of the
center's work in microgravity polymer membrane processing.
Polymer membranes have been used in the separations industry for
many years for such applications as desalination of water, filtration during
the processing of food products, atmospheric purification, medicinal
purification and dialysis of kidneys and blood.
One method of producing polymer membranes is evaporation casting.
In this process, a membrane is prepared by forming a mixed solution of
polymer and solvent into a thin layer -- the solution is then evaporated to
dryness. The polymer membrane is left with a certain degree of porosity
and can then be used for the applications described above.
Although polymer chemists do not fully understand the importance of
the evaporation step in the formation of thin-film membranes, a study has
demonstrated that convective flows during processing do, in fact, influence
the structure of the membrane. Convective flows are a natural result of the
effects of gravity on liquids or gases that are non-uniform in specific
density. The microgravity of space will permit researchers to study
polymer membrane casting in a convection-free environment.
The IPMP payload on STS-31 consists of two experimental units and
their contents. Each IPMP unit consists of two sample cylinders connected
to each other by a valve. The larger of the two cylinders is 8 inches long and
4 in. in diameter, with the smaller cylinder measuring 4.5 by 2 in. The
overall dimensions of each IPMP unit are 18.6 by 3.5 by 4.41 in. The total
weight of the flight hardware (both units) is approximately 17 pounds.
Before launch the larger cylinder, sealed on one end, is evacuated and
sealed on the other end by closing the valve. The valve is then secured to
preclude accidental opening during ground processing activities.
A thin-film polymer membrane is swelled in a solvent solution. (In this
first flight experiment, the polymer -- polysulfone -- is swollen with a
mixture of dimethylacetamide and acetone.) The resultant swollen gel
(viscous fluid) is measured and inserted into a sample tube, which is
inserted into the smaller of the two cylinders. This cylinder is sealed at
ambient pressure (-14.7 psia) and attached to the other side of the valve.
The procedure is repeated for the second unit. Once Discovery's on-orbit
activities allow it, a crewmember will release and open the valve on each
unit. Opening the valve causes the solvents in the smaller cylinder to flash-
evaporate into the vacuum of the larger cylinder. The remaining thin-film
polymer membrane has a porosity related to the evaporation of the solution.
The system reaches an equilibrium state, which is maintained for the
remainder of the flight. The minimum duration needed for adequate
results is 24 hours.
The IPMP occupies the space of a single small stowage tray (one-half of
a middeck locker). The two units are positioned in foam inserts in the
stowage tray. The IPMP is self-contained and requires no power from the
Shuttle orbiter. Upon landing the IPMP will be returned to Battelle for
analysis.
Principal investigator for the IPMP is Dr. Vince McGinniss of Battelle.
Lisa A. McCauley, Associate Director of the Battelle CCDS, is program
manager.
ASCENT PARTICLE MONITOR
The Ascent Particle Monitor is an automatic system mounted in
Discovery's payload bay to measure particle contamination or particle
detachment during the immediate prelaunch period and during ascent.
The payload consists of a small box with a fixed door and a moving door
mounted in a clamshell arrangement atop an aluminum housing. Each
door contains six sample coupons.
The doors are closed together preflight to protect the coupons from the
environment. At a preselected time, the doors open exposing the coupons
for a selected period of time. They are then closed to seal the coupons for
later analysis. A motor/gearbox assembly, two battery packs and launch
detection and door opening circuitry are contained within the aluminum
housing.
RADIATION MONITORING EXPERIMENT
The Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME) will record both the rate
and total dosage of all types of ionizing radiation (gamma ray, neutron and
proton radiation). The experiment consists of a single handheld
instrument with replaceable memory modules. It contains a liquid crystal
display for realtime data display and a keyboard for controlling its
functions.
The experiment is self-contained with two zinc-air and five AA batteries
contained in each memory module and two zinc-air batteries in the main
module. RME-III will be activated as soon as possible after orbit is achieved
and will be programmed to operate throughout the entire mission. A crew
member will enter the correct mission elapsed time upon activation and
change the memory module every 2 days. All data stored in the memory
modules will be analyzed at the completion of the mission.
Student Science Investigation Project
"Investigation of Arc and Ion Behavior in Microgravity"
This SSIP experiment, selected in 1982, was proposed by Gregory S.
Peterson, formerly of Box Elder High School, Brigham City, Utah. The
experiment is designed to study the effect of weightlessness on electrical
arcs.
In a normal Earth environment when electricity moves through the air
between two points, air molecules become charged and form an ion path.
This ion path is electrically more conductive than the surrounding air.
Convective currents caused by the heating of the air around the arc tend to
force the arc to rise, known as the "Jacob's ladder" effect.
In a weightless environment, convection currents cannot be created in
this way, so the arc will behave differently. It is postulated that the arc
shape will depend on things such as interaction between the ions, the
magnetic field generated by the arc, and others. These things are not
observable on Earth because the effect of convection is so much stronger
than any of the other forces.
To observe the effects of free fall on an arc and to study the effects of
a magnetic field on an arc without convection, Peterson's experimental
apparatus consists of a sealed aluminum arc chamber box within a sealed
aluminum outer box. Both boxes have a window in which a wire screen is
embedded to prevent the escape of electromagnetic interference while
allowing viewing and photography. Both boxes are filled with a mixture of
67% argon and 33% nitrogen to prevent the formation of ozone. Experiment
results could have possible applications to materials processing in space.
Peterson is now a senior studying chemistry and biology at Utah State
University. His teacher advisor is Darrel Turner, formerly with Box Elder
High School. The experiment was sponsored by Thiokol Corp., with the
science advice of Val King, Space Dynamics Laboratories.
IMAX
The IMAX project is a collaboration between NASA and the Smithsonian
Institution's National Air and Space Museum to document significant
space activities using the IMAX film medium. This system, developed by
IMAX Systems Corp., Toronto, Canada, uses specially designed 70mm film
cameras and projectors to record and display very high definition large-
screen pictures.
During Shuttle Mission STS-31, an IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC)
will be carried in the payload bay of Discovery and used to document
activities associated with the deployment of the Hubble Space Telescope.
The camera is mounted in the in a pressure-sealed container with a
viewing window. The window has a sliding door which opens when the
camera is in operation. The camera is controlled from the aft-flight deck,
exposing the film through a 30mm fisheye lens.
A second IMAX camera will be flown in the mid-deck of the orbiter and
will be used by the crew to collect additional material for upcoming IMAX
productions.
Imax cameras previously have flown on Space Shuttle missions 41-C, 41-
D and 41-G to document crew operations in the payload bay and the orbiter's
middeck and flight deck along with spectacular views of Earth. Film from
those missions form the basis for the IMAX production, The Dream is
Alive.
The IMAX camera flew on STS-29 in March 1989, STS-34 in October 1989
and most recently STS-32 in January 1990. During those missions, the
camera was used to gather material for an upcoming IMAX production
entitled The Blue Planet.
CREW BIOGRAPHIES
Loren J. Shriver, 46, Col. USAF, will serve as Commander. Selected as an
astronaut in 1978, he considers Paton, Iowa, to be his hometown and will be
making his second Shuttle flight.
Shriver was Pilot for STS-51C, the eleventh shuttle flight and a DOD-
dedicated mission, launched on Jan. 24, 1985. The five-member crew spent
3 days in orbit aboard Challenger.
Shriver graduated from Paton Consolidated High School in 1962 and
received a bachelor of science degree in aeronautical engineering from the
United States Air Force Academy in 1967. He received a master of science
degree in aeronautical engineering from Purdue University in 1968.
Commissioned by the Air Force in 1967, Shriver served as a T-38
academic instructor pilot at Vance Air Force Base, Okla., from 1969-1973.
He completed F-4 combat crew training in 1973 and completed a 1-year
overseas assignment in Thailand in 1974. He attended the USAF Test Pilot
School in 1975 and, from 1976 until his selection by NASA, served as a test
pilot with the F-15 Joint Test Force at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif.
Shriver has logged more than 5,000 hours in jet aircraft and flown 30
different types of single- and multi-engine aircraft.
Charles F. Bolden Jr., 44, Col. USMC, will serve as Pilot. Selected as an
astronaut in 1980, he was born in Columbia, S.C., and will be making his
second Shuttle flight.
Bolden was Pilot for STS-61C, a 6-day flight of Columbia launched Jan.
12, 1986. The crew deployed a SATCOM KU satellite and conducted
experiments in astrophysics and materials processing. The flight
culminated in a night landing at Edwards.
Bolden graduated from C.A. Johnson High School in Columbia in 1964.
He received a bachelor of science degree in electrical science from the
United States Naval Academy in 1968 and a master of science from the
University of Southern California in 1978.
Bolden accepted a commission in the Marine Corps in 1968 and was
designated a naval aviator in 1970. From 1972-1973, he flew more than 100
sorties in Vietnam while stationed in Thailand. In 1979, he graduated from
the Naval Test Pilot School and was assigned to the Naval Air Test Center's
systems engineering and strike aircraft test directorates, where he worked
until his selection by NASA. Bolden has logged more than 4,800 hours
flying time.
Bruce McCandless II, 53, Capt. USN, will serve as Mission Specialist-1
(MS-1). Selected as an astronaut in 1966, he was born in Boston, Mass., and
will be making his second Shuttle flight.
McCandless was a Mission Specialist aboard Challenger on STS-41B, the
tenth Shuttle flight. During the 8-day flight, the crew deployed two Hughes
376 communications satellites and McCandless completed two spacewalks,
taking the shuttle's manned maneuvering unit (MMU) on its maiden
voyage. The flight ended with the first landing at Kennedy Space Center.
McCandless graduated from Woodrow Wilson Senior High School, Long
Beach, Calif., and received a bachelor of science degree from the U.S. Naval
Academy in 1958. He received a master of science degree in electrical
engineering from Stanford University in 1965 and a master's degree in
business administration from the University of Houston-Clear Lake in 1987.
Designated a naval aviator in 1960, he has logged more than 5,200 hours of
flying time, 5,000 of them in jet aircraft.
At NASA, McCandless was a member of the astronaut support crew for
the Apollo 14 mission; backup pilot of the first manned Skylab mission; and
worked with development of astronaut maneuvering units for more than 10
years.
Steven A. Hawley, 39, will be Mission Specialist-2 (MS-2). Selected as an
astronaut in 1978, Hawley considers Salina, Kansas, to be his hometown
and will be making his third Shuttle flight.
Hawley first flew on STS-41D, the twelfth Shuttle flight and the maiden
flight of Discovery, launched Aug. 30, 1984. During the 7-day flight, the six-
member crew deployed the SBS-D, SYNCOM IV-2 and TELSTAR satellites.
His second flight was aboard Columbia on STS-61C, on which fellow STS-31
crew member Bolden served as pilot.
Hawley graduated from Salina Central High School in 1969 and received
bachelor of arts degrees in physics and astronomy from University of
Kansas in 1973. He received a doctor of philosophy in astronomy and
astrophysics from the University of California in 1977. At NASA, Hawley
now serves as deputy chief of the Astronaut Office.
Kathryn D. Sullivan, 39, will serve as Mission Specialist-3 (MS-3).
Selected as an astronaut in 1978, she considers Woodland Hills, Calif., to be
her hometown and will be making her second Shuttle flight.
Sullivan flew on STS-41G, the thirteenth Shuttle flight, launched on Oct.
5, 1984. During the 8-day flight, the seven-member crew deployed Earth
Radiation Budget satellite and conducted observations of Earth using the
OSTA-3 flight. Sullivan conducted a 3.5-hour spacewalk to demonstrate the
feasibility of refueling satellites in orbit, making her the first U.S. woman
to walk in space.
Sullivan graduated from Taft High School in Woodland Hills in 1969 and
received a bachelor of science degree in Earth sciences from the University
of California at Santa Cruz in 1973. She received a doctorate in geology
from Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1978. At NASA,
Sullivan's research interests have focused on remote sensing and planetary
geology, and she made several flights in the WB-57F high-altitude research
plane participating in several remote sensing projects in Alaska in 1978.
She was a co-investigator on the Shuttle Imaging Radar-B experiment
which flew on STS-41G.
Sullivan is an oceanography officer in the U.S. Naval Reserve and has
attained the rank of Lt. Cmdr. She also is a private pilot, rated in powered
and glider aircraft.
MISSION MANAGEMENT FOR HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE LAUNCH
Office of Space Science and Applications
Dr. Lennard A. Fisk - Associate Administrator
Alphonso V. Diaz - Deputy Associate Administrator
Dr. Charles J. Pellerin, Jr. - Director, Astrophysics Division
Douglas R. Broome - Chief, Observatories Development Branch
HST Program Manager
David J. Pine - HST Deputy Program Manager
Dr. Edward J. Weiler - Chief, UV/Visible Astrophysics Branch
HST Program Scientist
Dr. Geoffery Clayton - HST Deputy Program Scientist
Ralph Weeks - Observatories Servicing Program Manager
Office of Space Flight
Dr. William B. Lenoir - Associate Administrator
Joseph B. Mahon - Deputy Associate Administrator (Flight Systems)
Robert L. Crippen - Director Space Shuttle Program
Leonard E. Nicholson - Deputy Director Space Shuttle Program
Office of Space Operations
Charles T. Force - Associate Administrator
Eugene Ferrick - Director, Tracking & Data Relay Satellite Systems Division
Robert M. Hornstein - Director, Ground Networks Division
Johnson Space Center
Aaron Cohen - Director
Eugene F. Kranz - Director, Mission Operations
William D. Reeves - STS-31 Flight Director
Nellie N. Carr - STS-31 Payload Officer
Richard M. Swalin - HST Payload Integration Manager
Marshall Space Flight Center
Thomas J. Lee - Director
Fred S. Wojtalik - HST Project Manager
Jean R. Olivier - HST Deputy Project Manager
Michael M. Harrington - HST Director of Orbital Verification
William E. Taylor - HST Systems Engineering Manager
Max E. Rosenthal - HST Optical Telescope Assembly and
Maintenance & Refurbishment Manager
John H. Harlow - HST Support Systems Manager
Dr. Frank Six - HST Deputy Project Scientist
Goddard Space Flight Center
Dr. John W. Townsend, Jr. - Director
Peter T. Burr - Director of Flight Projects
James W. Moore - GSFC HST Project Manager
Dr. John H. Campbell - GSFC HST Deputy Project Manager
Joseph E. Ryan - HST Mission Operations Manager
Dr. Albert Boggess - HST Project Scientist
Dr. Keith J. Kalinowski - HST Director of Science Verification
Dale L. Fahnestock - Director of Mission Operations and
Data Systems Directorate
Kennedy Space Center
Forrest S. McCartney - Director
Jay Honeycutt - Director, Shuttle Management & Operations
John T. Conway - Director, Payload Management & Operations
Joanne H. Morgan - Director, Payload Project Management
European Space Agency
Robin Lawrance - ESA Project Manager
Dr. Peter Jakobsen - FOC Project Scientist
Dr. Duccio Macchetto - Chairman FOC TDT
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