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Quarks, Quasars, etc...
This is the first in a series of "tutorials" at the suggestion of the
"SYSOP", Dick DeLoach, addressed to the ASTROFORUM members as a whole
to see if there is any interest in exploring the Astrophysics of some
of the more mysterious objects in the Universe. These discussions are
to some extent based on unproven theory as the energy potentials are
much to high to safely explore on Earth. Further, such experimental
devices as the FermiLab TEVITRON, are not close to the power levels
necessary to make these events happen, if indeed, they happen at all.
As astronomers, we must be curious about the source of energy for the
stars. In the 1930's, HANS BETHE, the brilliant theoritical physcist
responsible for the H-Bomb (not Edward Teller proposed an entirely
new type of nuclear reaction as the "engine of the stars." This was
"alpha fusion." Simply put, atoms, actually, protons, are fused under
high temperature and pressure to form helium from the hydrogen nuclei.
Per reaction, this yields far more power than the conventional
"fission" or breaking of very heavy nuclei. This Standard Model of
Star Fusion remains in effect today and obtained a Nobel Prize in
Physics for Professor Bethe.
Our world is based on matter-energy, organized in a series of "chinese
boxes." In the outer layer, or box, is the domain of the electron.
This is the world of our common experience. Fire, heat, water and the
land on which we stand and the air we breath is the electron world.
Even though we cannot see it we know that there is also a much smaller
world, the world of the nucleus. That "chinese box is made up of two
particles, neutrons and protons. This is the world of nuclear energy-
that energy actually that is stored within that bound system. The
nuclear force, more correctly, the "ELECTROWEAK FORCE" is released
through fission of heavy elements into lighter elements. This is what
the common nuclear reactor does. The force is also released naturally
through Beta decay which effects the transformation of a neutron into
a proton, releasing gamma radiation, electrons, positrons and
nutrinos.
The other main nuclear force is the "STRONG FORCE." It is the primary
force that binds neutrons and protons together within the nucleus.
Its origin is still a matter of speculation. What isn't speculation
is that it is, indeed, quite strong. This is the "FUSION" power that
is thought to power stars and surely does power the Hydrogen Bomb!
Several protons are jammed together, overcomming the electromagnetic
(Electroweak, actually) force and the net product weighs less than the
protons used to make the helium atom. Thus, through building rather
than breaking atoms, energy can be generated; but only up to Iron-56!
It may stem from the quarks that make up protons and electrons, and
may be merely a residual quarkian force!
MURRAY GELL-MANN of CALTECH first postulated an organization of matter
that accounts for the makeup of sub-atomic particles, including the
proton and neutron. He proposed that all particles were made up of
another "chinese box" containing charges, he called them "quarks"
after a James Joyce reference to "three quarks for Master Mark." The
three quarks of Gell-Mann he called up, down and strange; or "u, d,
and s." It later develpoed that three additional quarks were
necessary to account for known and discovered particles; charm, truth
and beauty, or top and bottom. The PROTON is made up of two "up"
quarks and one "down" quark. The NEUTRON is made of two "down" quarks
and one "up" quark; or so the story goes.
Experimenters have tried to "spring loose" a quark, any quark, to
study it in isolation, but, so far, have been completely unsuccessful.
Current theories predict that a proton will decay, if the GRAND
UNIFIED THEORIES are correct, which they do not appear to be. Such a
decay might yield a quark in isolation. Expensive studies have been
made looking for proton decay and they have failed to detect any
proton decay. This has led some theoritists to believe that the quark
system "chinese box" is materially different from all the levels above
it. All other "forces" weaken with distance. The electromagnetic is
the most common in our experience and we can see that a field gets
weaker, the further you remove yourself from the source. THIS DOES
NOT APPEAR TO BE THE CASE WITH THE QUARK! IT GETS STRONGER THE FURTHER
THE THREE QUARKS MOVE FROM EACH OTHER. The implications of this are
just beginning to sink into the world of physics, but should come as
less of a surprise to the Astronomer. We see objects within the
Universe that are generating energy at levels that cannot be accounted
for with conventional nuclear physics. QUASARS seem to be compact
objects (about the size of the solar system) emitting energy from
radio to gamma frequencies equal to the entire output of our MILKY WAY
GALAXY. The gravational engine, a black hole, cannot account for this
due to problems to be covered in another tutorial.
The suspicion is that the QUASARS are producing energy from the quarks
and the force that acts among them. This throws the Special
Relativity formula of E=mc2 in a cocked hat, or rather limits it to
nuclear conversions of matter.
Perhaps, this is also going on within Active Galaxies and is the true
destiny of a neutron star and black hole, quark power production.
The STANDARD MODEL of physics and Astropyhsics accounts for most of
the common features of the Universe, but under close scrutiny from
modern experimentors, the Model is falling apart in "chuncks!" As
noted above Hans Bethe defined what has come to be believed as the
method of energy production of stars, FUSION. In fusion, the alpha
type such as our SUN uses, NEUTRINOS re produced in unbelievable
quantities. These neutrinos may constitute the major mass of the
Universe, even though they have a mass so small, it has yet to be
measured accurately. More about this later. The chief difficulty
with the SUN is that IT IS NOT PRODUCING NEUTRINOS at any where near
the required level if alpha fusion is going on within it! Then, what
is happening?
Perhaps our understanding of the power source is deficient and that,
although the Standard Model is a close approximation of reality, it is
not real at all; just like quantum physics!
These are just a few of the first issues that we, as astronomers
should be aware of. We don't even have an explanation for our own
Star's energy production. A great deal of new information and thought
will be shared in the forthcoming tutorials in the hope that they will
inform and elicit comment and criticism.
I would appreciate your comments, corrections and alternative
theories.
ROB
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